f 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


FARM  SCIENCE  SERIES 


Field  Crops 

By  A.  D.  WILSON,  University  of  Minnesota  and 
C.  W.  WARBURTON,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry 

By  C.  S.  PLUMB,  Ohio  State  University. 

Soils  and  Soil  Fertility 

By  A.  R.  WHITSON,  University  of  Wisconsin  and 
H.  L.  WALSTER,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Agricultural  Engineering 

By  J.  B.  DAVIDSON,  Iowa  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Popular  Fruit  Growing 

By  S.  B.  GREEN,  University  of  Minnesota. 

Vegetable  Gardening 

By  S.  B.  GEEEN,  University  of  Minnesota. 


(  OTHER  TEXTS  IN  PREPARATION) 


Vegetable   Gardening 


A  MANUAL  ON  THE  GROWING  OF  VEGETABLES 
FOR  HOME  USE  AND  MARKETING 


By 
SAMUEL  B.  GREEN 

Late  Professor  of  Horticulture,   University  of  Minnesota, 

and  Author   of  "Popular  Fruit  Growing,"  "Forestry   in 

Minnesota,"    Principles   of   American    Forestry,"  "Faim 

Windbreaks  and  Shelterbelts,"  etc. 


FOURTEENTH  EDITION 
Secona  Revision 


1915 

BB  PUBLISHING 

ST.PAUUMINN. 


COPYRIGHTS,   1901,  1905,  1908,  1909 
By  SAMUEL  B.  GREEN 

COPYRIGHT,   1914 
By  MRS.  SAMUEL  B.  GREEN 


PREFACE  TO  NINTH  EDITION 


This  book  was  prepared  primarily  for  the  School  of 
Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  where  it  has 
been  used  as  a  textbook  since  it  was  first  published.  It  is 
the  result  of  the  development  of  the  system  of  teaching 
at  this  school  and  is  intended  for  students  of  the  high 
school  grade.  In  this  the  ninth  edition  a  few  changes 
have  been  made  to  bring  it  up-to-date  in  the  matter  of 
methods  of  culture  and  varieties  recommended. 

In  previous  editions  I  have  taken  pleasure,  as  I  do 
now,  in  acknowledging  the  assistance  which  I  have  re- 
ceived in  many  ways  in  preparing  the  manuscript  for  the 
first  edition  of  this  book  from  Prof.  Harry  Snyder,  the  late 
Dr.  Otto  Lugger,  the  late  Major  A..  G.  Wilcox,  and  my 
former  assistant,  Prof.  R.  S.  Mackintosh,  now  Professor 
of  Horticulture  at  Auburn,  Alabama.  In  preparing  this 
edition,  I  have  been  helped  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Kohler,  Assistant 
in  Horticulture. 

Figures  numbered  52,  67,  69  and  121  are  from  D.  Land- 
reth  &  Sons;  26,  27,  31,  32  and  92  are  from  W.  Atlee  Bur- 
pee; Nos.  22,  23,  81  and  96  are  reproduced  from  publications 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture:  No.  5  is  from  Bateman 
Manufacturing  Co.;  Nos.  34,  35,  36,  37,  38,  39,  41  and  43 
were  loaned  by  Dr.  Lugger;  Nos.  58,  61,  65,  66,  106,  108, 
112,  119,  120  and  122  from  various  sources.  All  other 
figures  are  original 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN, 
St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn.,  November  1st,  1909. 


365636 


PREFACE  TO  THIRTEENTH  EDITION 


It  has  seemed  desirable  to  have  this  book  revised, 
because  some  of  the  plates  in  the  last  edition  of  Vegetable 
Gardening  were  dim,  and  because  new  machinery,  methods 
of  culture,  and  new  varieties  of  plants  are  all  the  time 
being  developed  and  new  remedies  are  being  constantly 
used  for  plant  diseases.  By  including  these  the  book  is 
brought  entirely  up-to-date. 

I  wish  to  thank  Professor  Le  Roy  Cady,  Horticulturist 
at  the  Experiment  Station,  who  was  trained  by  my  hus- 
band and  knows  his  methods,  for  his  services  in  revising 
this  book  in  such  an  acceptable  manner. 

ALICE  H.  GREEN 
(Mrs.  Samuel  B.  Green). 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.    THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 11 

The  Home  Garden. — Location.     Laying  out.     Tools.     Soil. 

Gardening  in  General. — Location  and  soils  for  early  and 
for  late  crops.  Mulching.  Cultivation. 

Irrigation. — Amount  of  water  required  for  irrigating  differ- 
ent crops.  Pumping  water  for  irrigation.  Making  reservoirs. 
Application  of  water.  Rules  for  applying  water.  Subirriga- 
tion.  Overhead  or  Skinner  system. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — Reasons  for,  etc. 

CHAPTER  II.     MANURES 26 

Manures  in  General. — Classes.  Most  valuable  elements 
in  manures.  Humus.  Action  of  manures  in  the  soil.  Effect 
on  crops.  Manures  for  early  and  for  late  crops.  Manures 
for  leguminous  crops.  When  to  apply  manures.  Manuring 
the  growing  crops.  Liquid  manure. 

Composition  of  Vegetables  and  Manures. — Vegetables. 
Farm  manures.  Commercial  fertilizers. 

Animal  Manures. — Quality.  Heating  of.  Horse  manure. 
Hen  manure.  Cow  and  swine  manure.  Sheep  manure.  The 
manure  pile.  The  compost  heap. 

Green  Manures. — Value.     Crops  for. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. — Tankage.  Ground  blood. 

Ground  bone.  Nitrate  of  soda.  Sulphate  of  ammonia. 
Acid  phosphate.  Raw  rock  phosphate.  Wood  ashes.  Kainit. 
Lime.  Land  plaster.  Need  of  fertilizers.  Home  mixing  of 
fertilizers. 

CHAPTER  III.    GARDEN  TILLAGE 49 

Garden  Tillage. — Objects  of  tillage.     Prevention  and  killing 

of  weeds.     Importance  of  not  allowing  weeds  to  go  to  seed. 

Weed  seeds  in  manure.     Plowing.     Subsoiling.     Ridging  land. 

General  cultivation  of  garden  crops.     Cultivation  to  develop 

plant  food. 

Garden  Implements. — Horse  hoes  and   horse  cultivators. 

Hand  cultivators.     Seed  drills.     Combination  seed  drills  and 

cultivators.     Markers.     Scuffle     attachments.     Scuffle     hoe. 

Plank  drag.     Potato  diggers.     Spray  pumps. 


8  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  IV.    SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING    ....        63 

Seed  Sowing. — Conditions  favoring  germination.  Depth 
to  plant.  Time  for  sowing.  Sowing  in  stiff  clay  soils.  Sow- 
ing seed  with  machine.  Sowing  seed  by  hand.  Shading. 
Using  the  feet  for  firming  the  soil  around  seeds.  Thinning. 
Protecting  seeds  against  insects  and  birds. 

Transplanting. — Effects  and  value  of  transplanting.     Con- 
ditions of  success.     Shortening  the  tops  of  plants.     Digging 
Clants.     Firming  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  plants.     Harden- 
ig  off.     Substitutes  for  flower  pots.     Machine  transplant- 
ing. 

CHAPTER  V.  SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
VARIETIES -  .  80 

Seeds  and  Seed  Growing. — Good  pedigrees  in  seeds.  Test- 
ing seeds.  Simple  germinating  apparatus.  Curing  and  stor- 
ing seeds.  Changing  seed.  Stock  seed.  Seedsmen's  special- 
ties. Seedsmen's  humbugs.  Novelties. 

Development  of  Varieties. — Rules  for  improving  plants; 
laws  of  heredity.  Cross-and  self-pollination  of  plants.  Mix- 
ing of  varieties.  Distance  between  varieties  to  prevent 
mixing. 

CHAPTER  VI.    GLASS  STRUCTURES 92 

Hotbeds  and  Cold  Frames. — Cold  frames.  Hotbeds.  Pre- 
paration for  early  spring  use.  Hotbed  manure.  Fire  hot- 
beds. A  greenhouse  hotbed.  Sashes. 

Greenhouses. — Advantages.  Types.  Materials.  Cheap 
kinds  of.  Methods  of  heating.  Shutters.  Mats.  Ventila- 
tion and  temperature.  Watering.  Soil.  Boxes.  Substi- 
tutes for  glass.  Shading  the  glass.  Fifteen  things  to  remem- 
ber in  connection  with  building  glass  structures. 

CHAPTER  VII.     INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  VEGETABLES  .     .    .          119 

Insecticides  and  other  Insect  Destroyers. — Pyrethrum. 
Paris  green.  Tobacco.  Arsenate  of  lead.  Hellebore. 
"Sticker."  Kerosene  emulsion.  Carbon  bisulphide.  Catch- 
ing insects  by  light  at  night.  Application  of  insecticides. 

Common  Garden  Insects  and  Methods  of  Destroying  Them. 
— Colorado  potato  beetle.  Imported  and  native  cabbage 
worms.  Cabbage  plusia.  Wire  worms  or  drill  worms.  Cut- 
worms. Striped  cucumber  beetle.  White  grub  or  May 
beetle.  Maggots.  Cabbage  flea  beetle.  Leaf  lice  or  aphis. 
Cabbage  lice  or  aphis.  Sweet-corn  moth  or  tassel  worm. 
Parsley  worm  or  celery  caterpillar.  Chinch  bugs.  Bean  and 
pea  weevil.  Squash  vine  borer.  Squash  bug. 


CONTENTS  9 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VIII.    MARKETING 143 

Grading.  Cleanliness.  Packages.  Selling.  Advertising. 
Cooperative  associations. 

CHAPTER  IX.    GARDEN  VEGETABLES 147 

Classification  of  Vegetables. — Warm-and  cold-climate  vege- 
tables. Frost-tender  and  frost-hardy  vegetables.  Botanical 
classification. 

Vegetables. — Description,  Propagation  and  Culture,  Mark- 
eting, Varieties,  etc. — Mushroom.  Corn.  Asparagus.  Onion. 
Leek.  Garlic.  Rhubarb.  Beet.  Swiss  chard.  Spinach. 
Cabbage.  Cauliflower.  Radish.  Rutabaga.  Turnip. 
Brussels  sprouts.  Kale.  Kohl-rabi.  Horseradish.  Cress. 
Water  cress.  Bean.  Pea.  Okra.  Parsnip.  Parsley. 
Carrot.  Celery.  Celeriac.  Sweet  potato.  Eggplant. 
Pepper.  Strawberry  tomato.  Martynia.  ^  Cucumber. 
Squash.  Muskmelon.  Watermelon.  Pumpkin.  Gourd. 
Lettuce.  Salsify.  Endive.  Dandelion.  Artichoke. 

CHAPTER  X.    GARDEN  HERBS 309 

Balm.  Catnip.  Lavender.  Peppermint.  Sage.  Sweet 
basil.  Sweet  marjoram.  Spearmint.  Summer  savory. 
Thyme.  Winter  savory.  Anise.  Caraway.  Coriander. 
Dill.  Borage.  Rue. 

CHAPTER  XI.    VEGETABLES  FOR  EXHIBITION 315 

Governing  points  of  an  exhibit.  Growing  good  plants. 
Preparing  an  exhibit.  Judging.  Potato  score  card.  Onions. 
Carrots.  Cabbage.  Beets.  Squash.  Pumpkins. 

APPENDIX 319 

Tables. — 1.  Weight  of  one  quart  of  seed  and  number  of 
seeds  in  one  ounce.  II.  Longevity  of  garden  seeds. 
III.  Amount  of  seed  required  to  sow  one  acre.  IV.  Average 
time  required  for  garden  seeds  to  germinate.  V.  Standards 
of  purity  and  germination  of  agricultural  seeds.  VI.  Quantity 
required  for  given  number  of  hills.  VII.  Quantity  of  seed  for 
given  length  of  drill. 

Monthly  Calendar  of  Garden  Operations. 
Laboratory  Exercises  in  Vegetable  Gardening. 
Books  and  Bulletins. 

INDEX  330 


8  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  IV.    SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING    ....        63 

Seed  Sowing. — Conditions  favoring  germination.  Depth 
to  plant.  Time  for  sowing.  Sowing  in  stiff  clay  soils.  Sow- 
ing seed  with  machine.  Sowing  seed  by  hand.  Shading. 
Using  the  feet  for  firming  the  soil  around  seeds.  Thinning. 
Protecting  seeds  against  insects  and  birds. 

Transplanting. — Effects  and  value  of  transplanting.  Con- 
ditions of  success.  Shortening  the  tops  of  plants.  Digging 
plants.  Firming  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  plants.  Harden- 
ing off.  Substitutes  for  flower  pots.  Machine  transplant- 
ing. 

CHAPTER  V.  SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
VARIETIES 80 

Seeds  and  Seed  Growing. — Good  pedigrees  in  seeds.  Test- 
ing seeds.  Simple  germinating  apparatus.  Curing  and  stor- 
ing seeds.  Changing  seed.  Stock  seed.  Seedsmen's  special- 
ties. Seedsmen's  humbugs.  Novelties. 

Development  of  Varieties. — Rules  for  improving  plants; 
laws  of  heredity.  Cross-and  self-pollination  of  plants.  Mix- 
ing of  varieties.  Distance  between  varieties  to  prevent 
mixing. 

CHAPTER  VI.     GLASS  STRUCTURES 92 

Hotbeds  and  Cold  Frames. — Cold  frames.  Hotbeds.  Pre- 
paration for  early  spring  use.  Hotbed  manure.  Fire  hot- 
beds. A  greenhouse  hotbed.  Sashes. 

Greenhouses. — Advantages.  Types.  Materials.  Cheap 
kinds  of.  Methods  of  heating.  Shutters.  Mats.  Ventila- 
tion and  temperature.  Watering.  Soil.  Boxes.  Substi- 
tutes for  glass.  Shading  the  glass.  Fifteen  things  to  remem- 
ber in  connection  with  building  glass  structures. 

CHAPTER  VII.     INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  VEGETABLES  ...          119 

Insecticides  and  other  Insect  Destroyers. — Pyrethrum. 
Paris  green.  Tobacco.  _  Arsenate  of  lead.  Hellebore. 
"Sticker."  Kerosene  emulsion.  Carbon  bisulphide.  Catch- 
ing insects  by  light  at  night.  Application  of  insecticides. 

Common  Garden  Insects  and  Methods  of  Destroying  Them. 
— Colorado  potato  beetle.  Imported  and  native  cabbage 
worms.  Cabbage  plusia.  Wire  worms  or  drill  worms.  Cut- 
worms. Striped  cucumber  beetle.  White  grub  or  May 
beetle.  Maggots.  Cabbage  flea  beetle.  Leaf  lice  or  aphis. 
Cabbage  lice  or  aphis.  Sweet-corn  moth  or  tassel  worm. 
Parsley  worm  or  celery  caterpillar.  Chinch  bugs.  Bean  and 
pea  weevil.  Squash  vine  borer.  Squash  bug. 


CONTENTS  9 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VIII.    MARKETING 143 

Grading.  Cleanliness.  Packages.  Selling.  Advertising. 
Cooperative  associations. 

CHAPTER  IX.    GARDEN  VEGETABLES 147 

Classification  of  Vegetables. — Warm-and  cold-climate  vege- 
tables. Frost-tender  and  frost-hardy  vegetables.  Botanical 
classification. 

Vegetables.— Description,  Propagation  and  Culture,  Mark- 
eting, Varieties,  etc. — Mushroom.  Corn.  Asparagus.  Onion. 
Leek.  Garlic.  Rhubarb.  Beet.  Swiss  chard.  Spinach. 
Cabbage.  Cauliflower.  Radish.  Rutabaga.  Turnip. 
Brussels  sprouts.  Kale.  Kohl-rabi.  Horseradish.  Cress. 
Water  cress.  Bean.  Pea.  Okra.  Parsnip.  Parsley. 
Carrot.  Celery.  Celeriac.  Sweet  potato.  Eggplant. 
Pepper.  Strawberry  tomato.  Martynia.  Cucumber. 
Squash.  Muskmelon.  Watermelon.  Pumpkin.  Gourd. 
Lettuce.  Salsify.  Endive.  Dandelion.  Artichoke. 

CHAPTER  X.    GARDEN  HERBS 309 

Balm.  Catnip.  Lavender.  Peppermint.  Sage.  Sweet 
basil.  Sweet  marjoram.  Spearmint.  Summer  savory. 
Thyme.  Winter  savory.  Anise.  Caraway.  Coriander. 
Dill.  Borage.  Rue. 

CHAPTER  XL    VEGETABLES  FOR  EXHIBITION 315 

Governing  points  of  an  exhibit.  Growing  good  plants. 
Preparing  an  exhibit.  Judging.  Potato  score  card.  Onions. 
Carrots.  Cabbage.  Beets.  Squash.  Pumpkins. 

APPENDIX 319 

Tables. — 1.  Weight  of  one  quart  of  seed  and  number  of 
seeds  in  one  ounce.  II.  Longevity  of  garden  seeds. 
III.  Amount  of  seed  required  to  sow  one  acre.  IV.  Average 
time  required  for  garden  seeds  to  germinate.  V.  Standards 
of  purity  and  germination  of  agricultural  seeds.  VI.  Quantity 
required  for  given  number  of  hills.  VII.  Quantity  of  seed  for 
given  length  of  drill. 

Monthly  Calendar  of  Garden  Operations. 
Laboratory  Exercises  in  Vegetable  Gardening. 
Books  and  Bulletins. 

INDEX  330 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

VEGETABLE  gardening,  as  usually  defined,  means  the 
culture  of  vegetables  for  table  use.  Under  this  head  are 
also  included  certain  plants  which  botanically  are  fruits, 
but  are  considered  horticulturally  as  vegetables.  Among 
these  are  watermelons,  muskmelons,  and  tomatoes. 

Vegetable  growing  may  be  grouped  under  some  four 
or  five  divisions,  about  as  follows:  Kitchen  or  Home 
Gardening,  Market  Gardening,  Trucking,  and  Greenhouse 
Culture  or  Vegetable  Forcing. 

Market  Gardening. — By  market  gardening  we  usually 
mean  the  growing  of  vegetables  for  commercial  purposes. 
For  success  in  market  gardening  or  trucking,  a  good  market, 
large  yields  per  acre,  vegetables  of  good  quality  and  ap- 
pearance, well  packed,  and  in  the  proper  season,  usually 
the  earlier  the  better,  are  essentials  for  success.  This, 
of  course,  means  good  land  and  good  management  on  the 
part  of  the  grower.  Celery,  radishes,  onions,  etc.,  are 
usually  regarded  as  market  crops.  The  vicinity  of  large 
cities  offers  splendid  opportunities  for  market  gardening. 

Trucking. — Trucking  differs  from  market  gardening 
mainly  in  that  it  is  carried  on  on  a  much  larger  scale, 
more  as  field  crops.  Cabbage,  tomatoes,  sweet  corn, 
etc.,  are  crops  commonly  grown  as  truck  crops.  Parts 
of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  North  Carolina,  and  Penn- 
sylvania are  especially  noted  as  trucking  centers. 


12  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Vegetable  Forcing. — Vegetable  forcing  is  carried  on  in 
cold  frames,  hotbeds,  and  greenhouses,  and  has  become 
one  of  the  important  branches  of  vegetable  growing, 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities.  Lettuce,  radishes, 
tomatoes,  and  cucumbers  are  the  crops  commonly  grown. 

Kitchen  or  Home  Vegetable  Gardening. — By  the  term 
"kitchen  garden"  is  meant  the  large  or  small  tract  of  land 
needed  to  grow  vegetables  for  home  use.  This  should 
be  one  of  the  most  profitable  parts  of  the  farm,  if  well 
taken  care  of.  Large  returns  may  also  be  obtained  from 
city  lot  gardens  of  small  area,  if  a  careful  succession  of 
crops  is  followed. 

THE  HOME  GARDEN 

If  one  were  to  figure  the  actual  value  of  vegetables 
that  may  be  raised  on  a  half -acre  plot  of  garden,  it  would 
amount  to  at  least  $100  —  ten  or  fifteen  times  what  any 
common  field  crop  on  the  farm  will  produce  on  the  same 
area.  Besides,  there  is  the  satisfaction  of  having  vege- 
tables fresh,  and  of  much  better  quality  than  can  be  bought 
in  town  or  from  a  neighbor,  unless  it  be  a  very  near  neigh- 
bor. Vegetables  lose  their  freshness  and  character  when 
much  time  elapses  between  their  harvesting  and  use. 
Furthermore,  not  one-quarter  as  many  will  be  used  if 
they  must  be  purchased;  hence  more  money  is  spent  for 
high-priced  meats  and  staple  groceries  by  the  man  who 
has  no  garden.  Caring  for  the  garden  is  a  bugbear  of 
many  farmers.  If  properly  laid  out  and  managed,  the 
labor  required  for  a  half-acre  of  garden,  after  it  is  planted, 
will  not  be  much  more  than  that  for  a  half-acre  of  corn. 

Location. — The  garden  should  be  near  the  house.  It 
may  be  that  much  of  the  labor  of  planting  and  care  will 
fall  upon  the  housewife  and  children ;  although  this  ought 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


13 


not  to  be  unless  they  desire  it.  The  garden  pays  well  enough 
to  be  given  proper  attention  from  the  men  of  the  house. 
However,  the  women  will  probably  prefer  to  harvest  the 
crop,  and  perhaps  plan  the  apportionment  of  the  garden 
space.  Either  the  garden  or  the  chickens  should  be  fenced. 

Laying  Out  the  Garden. — If  possible,  the  garden 
should  be  close  to,  or  a  part  of,  a  cultivated  field,  and  so 
laid  out  that  it  can  be  cultivated  by  horse  power.  It 
is  preferable  to  run  the  rows  the  long  way  of  the  garden, 
and  to  so  plan  it  that 
vegetables  of  similar 
growth  shall  be  togeth- 
er; for  it  is  easier  to 
cultivate  if  the  rows  are 
the  same  distance  apart. 
Room  for  turning  must 
be  left  at  the  ends  of 
the  rows.  The  peren- 
nials, such  as  asparagus, 
rhubarb,  and  the  fruits, 
should  be  placed  at  one 
side,  so  as  not  to  in- 
terfere with  cultivation. 

Tools.— The  kinds  of 
tools  to  be  used  will  de- 
pend on  the  size  of  the 
garden  and  the  inclina- 
tion   of    the    gardener. 
If    the     rows    are    far 
enough    apart,     practi- 
cally   all    the   work   of       **  L    At  work  with  the  garden  driu- 
cultivating  may  be  done  by  horse  power.     Many,  however, 
prefer  to  plant  the  rows  closer  together,   and   to   use  the 


14  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

hand  wheel-hoe,  hand  seeders,  etc.  If  well  prepared, 
it  is  really  more  satisfactory  to  take  care  of  a  small 
garden  with  these  tools  than  by  horse  power.  A  good 
seeder  and  wheel-hoe  combined  may  be  purchased  for 
about  $12;  or  the  wheel-hoe  and  attachments  may  be 
purchased  for  between  $6  and  $7,  and  the  seed-drill  for 
about  $8.  The  separate  tools  are  probably  the  most 
satisfactory  in  the  end,  even  though  they  cost  more. 
With  these  tools  properly  used,  very  little  hand-hoeing 
will  be  needed. 

Soil. — Any  good  corn  land  will  grow  vegetables  and 
fruits  in  abundance.  Of  course,  special  crops  require 
special  conditions.  For  early  crops  it  is  preferable  to 
use  rich,  sandy,  quick-acting  soils  sloping  to  the  south. 
This  is  best  also  for  plants  such  as  vines  and  tomatoes, 
which  need  much  warm  weather  to  mature  well.  Late 
root  crops,  cabbage,  etc.,  do  best  on  slightly  heavier  soils 
that  slope  to  the  north  or  east,  and  so  are  protected  from 
the  drying  south  wind. 

Manures. — Well-rotted  barnyard  manure  is  the  best 
fertilizer.  For  late  crops  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  be 
thoroughly  decayed,  as  there  is  time  for  it  to  decay 
before  the  plants  need  it.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  some  other 
commercial  fertilizers  are  occasionally  used  for  special 
crops,  and  will  probably  have  to  be  used  more  by  market 
gardeners  hereafter,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  getting 
stable  manures. 

GARDENING  IN  GENERAL 

Location  and  Soil. — The  land  for  vegetable  gardening 
should  be  free  from  stones  and  stumps,  and  easily  culti- 
vated. Wet  land  should  be  avoided  unless  it  can  be 
drained  at  a  reasonable  outlay;  if  it  cannot  be  drained  it  is 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  15 

of  little  worth,  as  scarcely  anything  of  value  can  be  raised 
on  it.  All  land  for  vegetable  gardening  should  be  well 
drained  either  naturally  or  artificially,  since  crops  on  well 
drained  land  suffer  least  from  drought  as  well  as  from 
excess  of  water.  Drained  land  also  gives  best  and  most 
uniform  returns  from  the  manure  applied  to  it.  When 
drainage  is  lacking  in  the  land,  the  raising  of  plants  on  it  is 
so  very  much  a  matter  of  chance  that  in  the  long  run  it  will 
generally  prove  unprofitable.  Most  of  the  land  in  culti- 
vation is  sufficiently  drained  naturally,  while  some  land 
that  needs  no  drainage  when  used  for  grass  or  grain  would 
be  greatly  improved  by  being  under-drained  when  it  is  to 
be  used  for  some  garden  crops. 

Land  having  a  gently  rolling  or  undulating  surface  with 
a  southern  exposure  is  the  most  desirable  for  general  gar- 
dening operations,  since  it  receives  the  full  sunlight  and 
allows  the  most  perfect  control  of  the  water  that  falls  upon 
it.  When  irrigation  is  practiced,  such  sloping  surface  aids 
greatly  in  the  distribution  of  the  water.  For  a  few  crops, 
such  as  celery,  cabbage,  etc.,  the  slope  makes  very  little 
difference,  as  flat  and  even  moist  (not  wet)  land  is  best. 
There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  value  of  northern  and 
southern  slopes  for  various  crops.  This  difference  will 
frequently  amount  to  one  crop  a  year  where  the  soil  is 
closely  tilled.  The  soil  on  a  southern  slope  can  be  worked 
much  earlier  in  the  spring  than  that  having  a  northern 
exposure,  and  often  by  proper  management  two  crops  may 
be  grown  in  one  year  in  such  places,  while  on  a  northern 
slope  perhaps  only  one  crop  could  be  raised.  Then  again, 
such  crops  as  melons  and  tomatoes,  that  require  a  long 
season  and  a  warm  location  to  mature,  develop  fully  on  a 
southern  slope,  while  on  a  northern  slope  they  might  not 
ripen. 


18 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


IRRIGATION 


Irrigation  is  generally  unnecessary  in  this  (Minnesota) 
section,  since  we  raise  fair  and  even  abundant  crops  nearly 
every  year  without  its  aid,  but  in  almost  any  season  there 
are  periods  when  if  water  could  be  applied  to  growing  crops 
it  would  improve  them.  It  will  seldom  if  ever  pay  to  irri- 
gate ordinary  farm  crops  if  it  is  necessary  to  pump  the 
water  used.  In  order  to  have  irrigation  practical  for  farm 
crops  the  water  should  be  carried  and  distributed  on  the 
land  by  the  force  of  gravity.  It  may  pay  to  pump  water  to 
irrigate  some  garden  crops  if  the  conditions  are  favorable 
and  the  work  is  done  intelligently.  In  this  section  irriga- 
tion should  be  used  to  supplement  the  rainfall,  which 
should  ordinarily  be  kept  from  running  off  the  surface  of 
the  land  by  every  possible  precaution. 

Amount  of  Water  Required  for  Irrigating  Different 
Crops. — Sometimes  a  very  small  amount  of  water  applied 
at  the  right  time  will  make  the  difference  between  a  good 
crop  and  a  total  failure,  as,  for  instance,  when  dry  weather 
comes  on  just  as  the  strawberry  crop  is  almost  ripe,  when 


Fig.  2.     One  method  of  irrigating  crops  planted  i 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  19 

it  has  happened  that  so  small  a  quantity  as  600  barrels  of 
water  per  acre  has  been  sufficient  to  ripen  the  crop.  In 
western  Kansas  it  is  estimated  that  a  storage  capacity  of 
5,000  barrels  per  acre  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  rain  sup- 
ply is  needed  to  mature  a  crop  in  dry  seasons.  In  this 
section  a  storage  capacity  of  1,500  barrels  per  acre  would 
probably  be  enough  to  insure  against  serious  injury  from 
drought  in  any  but  very  exceptionally  dry  years.  Enough 
water  to  cover  an  acre  one  inch  deep  is  termed  an  acre  inch. 
About  900  barrels  equal  one  acre  inch. 

Pumping  Water  for  Irrigation. — Where  valuable  crops 
are  grown,  it  will  sometimes  pay  to  pump  water  for  them. 
There  are  many  localities  in  this  section  where  a  large 
amount  of  water  may  be  controlled  by  lifting  it  less  than 
thirty  feet.  In  such  places  windmills  may  be  successfully 
used  for  pumping  the  water,  providing  reservoirs  of  large 
capacity  can  be  cheaply  made  into  which  water  may  be 
pumped  the  year  around  to  be  used  as  needed.  Thresher 
engines,  which  are  seldom  used  except  in  the  late  summer 
and  fall,  may  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  for  pumping 
water  and  often  at  very  low  cost.  Gasoline  engines  are 
used  in  many  irrigation  works.  They  are  very  desirable 
and  in  fact  necessary  on  any  farm  where  power  can  be  used. 
They  are  useful  not  only  for  pumping  water  but  for  grind- 
ing feed,  sawing  wood,  etc.  In  putting  in  a  pumping 
plant  the  pump  should  be  put  as  near  the  water  supply  as 
possible. 

Reservoirs  should  be  on  some  elevated  point.  They  are 
easily  made  by  digging  out  the  earth  and  puddling  the 
bottom  and  sides  with  thick  clay,  which  should  be  at  least 
one  foot  in  thickness  and  well  packed  when  wet.  A  good 
way  to  pack  it  is  to  drive  horses  over  it.  When  clay  cannot 
be  obtained  the  bottom  may  be  made  tight  with  a  thin  coat- 


20  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

ing  of  coal  tar  and  sand,  but  clay  is  preferable,  and  what 
is  known  as  blue  clay  is  generally  best.  Cement  is  liable 
to  crack  badly  from  frost  and  is  not  adapted  to  this  pur- 
pose. Made  in  this  way,  reservoirs  are  very  cheap  and 
are  easily  repaired.  It  is  important  to  have  them  large 
where  the  supply  of  water  is  limited;  where  the  supply  is 
large,  the  reservoir  may  be  much  smaller.  Wooden  tanks 
are  easily  and  cheaply  constructed  for  holding  water. 

Application  of  Water — Sloping  land  is  necessary 
for  most  successful  irrigation,  if  the  water  is  to  be  applied 
by  the  force  of  gravity.  It  is  difficult  to  apply  water  to 
the  surface  of  level  land.  The  slope  should  be  sufficient  to 
permit  the  water  to  flow  rapidly  over  the  surface  and  yet 
not  enough  to  cause  it  to  wash.  For  irrigation  purposes 
the  rows  should  not  be  over  300  feet  long.  The  best  results 
are  generally  obtained  from  soils  having  considerable  sand 
in  their  composition.  Drifting  sands  may  often  be  made 
to  produce  good  crops  by  irrigating  and  manuring,  and 
lands  having  some  sand  in  their  composition  are  much 
better  adapted  to  irrigation  than  clay  soils,  since 
the  latter  often  bake  badly  or  become  sticky  so  that  they 
cannot  be  cultivated  immediately  after  applying  water. 

Rules  for  Applying  Water  to  Land. — Water  should 
not  be  applied  unless  the  crop  is  suffering  for  it,  but  the 
soil  should  be  cultivated  thoroughly  and  frequently,  and 
thus  waste  by  evaporation  may  be  saved. 

Cultivate  at  once  after  irrigating,  if  the  land  will  permit 
of  it,  so  that  the  soil  will  not  bake. 

Do  not  apply  more  than  enough  water  to  moisten  the 
land  well,  and  avoid  getting  it  water-soaked. 

Do  not  think  that  irrigation  will  take  the  place  of  culti- 
vation, for  it  will  not,  since  without  cultivation  irrigation  is 
seldom  successful. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


21 


Water  for  irrigating  purposes  should  be  somewhat  warm 
when  applied.  Cold  springs  do  not  afford  a  satisfactory 
supply  for  some  crops  unless  first  pumped  into  a  reservoir. 
A  temperature  of  60  de- 
grees is  desirable,  though 
not  always  necessary  for 
the  best  results. 

Aim  to  wet  the  roots 
of  the  plants  and  avoid 
getting  water  on  the 
leaves. 

Wooden  troughs  af- 
ford the  cheapest  con- 
duits for  water  and 
should  be  used  when- 
ever practicable.  Iron 
pipe  is  expensive  and 
much  more  difficult  to 
manage  than  wooden 
troughs. 

Applying  Water  with 
Hose. — In  a  small  gar- 
den, lawn  hose  is  a  fairly 
successful  means  of  applying  water.  On  a  larger  scale 
it  is  too  cumbersome  and  expensive  a  method.  It  re- 
quires constant  attention  and  too  much  perishable 
equipment,  besides  the  water  cannot  be  evenly  applied. 
About  three  acres  can  be  gone  over  in  a  day  by  using  a  large 
hose  and  with  a  water  pressure  of  one  hundred  gallons  a 
minute. 

Subirrigation  is  a  term  that  refers  to  the  application 
of  water  to  the  roots  of  plants  by  means  of  underground 
channels,  such  as  tile  or  other  drains.  It  works  best  in  sandy 


Fig.  3.     The  Skinner  system  of  irrigation. 


22  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

soils.  In  clayey  soil  the  water  runs  too  slowly  through  the 
sides  of  the  tiles.  Land  tiles  make  as  good  channels  as 
any  for  this  purpose.  They  should  be  buried  a  few  inches 
below  or  by  the  side  of  the  plants  to  be  watered,  being  laid 
level  with  open  joints.  Some  experiments  seem  to  show 
that  it  is  a  very  wasteful  way  of  using  water,  while  others 
have  shown  this  system  to  be  economical.  As  practiced 
for  watering  plants  in  greenhouse  benches,  especially  for 
lettuce,  it  has  given  excellent  results. 

Objections  to  the  system  are  that  it  is  too  expensive  to 
supply  tile  and  take  them  up  and  reset  each  year,  unless 
they  are  set  deep  below  the  surface.  It  will  not  work  well 
in  all  kinds  of  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  less  waste 
of  water  and  less  baking  of  the  soil  when  this  system  is  used. 
Overhead  or  Skinner  System. — The  Skinner  system  of 
watering  first  came  into  use  about  1904,  and  this  system, 
or  modifications  of  it,  has  been  of  great  value  to  gardeners 

and  florists  generally. 
It  is  used  quite  exten- 
sively throughout  the 
market  gardening  dis- 

r^N^-fS  tricts  of  the  East  and  to 

some  extent  in  the  West, 
m  ifflOS       MM     an<^  ^as  Proven  °f  'im~ 
mense    value    to    some 

garden  crops  and  also  to 
Fig.  4.    The  skinner  union.  greenhouse     vegetables. 

The  advantages  of  the  Skinner  system  over  other  sys- 
tems are: — 

1.  Water  is  applied  uniformly  and  in  a  fine  spray; 
thus  the  ground  is  not  crusted  or  the  plants  injured. 

2.  Very  little  labor  is  required  to  operate  the  system. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


23 


Fig.  5.    The  Skinner  nozzles. 


3.  Insecticides,    fun- 
gicides,    and      fertilizers 
may  be  applied  by  means 
of  this  system. 

4.  It  does  not  inter- 
fere  with  plant   growth, 
because  the  water  falls  as 
a  fine  mist  or  spray  over 
the  plants. 

The  cost  of  installing  the  system  varies  from  $90  to 
$150  per  acre,  and  is  as  permanent  as  the  piping  used. 
Water  may  be  used  from  a  reservoir  or  pumped  directly 
into  the  system.  The  greater  the  pressure,  the  finer  is 
the  spray.  The  water  is  distributed  by  means  of  a  gal- 
vanized pipe  fitted  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  feet  with 
special  nozzles;  these  and  the  machine  for  setting  them 

are  patented.  See  Fig. 
3.  The  lines  of  pipe  are 
set  from  fifty  to  sixty 
feet  apart;  and  when 
the  pipe  is  supported 
as  in  the  illustration, 
the  posts  are  about 
twenty  feet  apart.  The 
size  of  the  pipe  will  of 
course  vary  with  the 
distance  and  number  of 
nozzles  on  it.  Fig.  5 
shows  the  nozzles  used; 
Fig.  4,  the  union  for  the 
Skinner  system  of  irri- 

Fig.  6.     Machine  for    securing    accuracy 
in  alignment  of  nozzles  in  the  Skinner  system. 


24  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  IN  a 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

By  rotation  is  meant  the  special  succession  of  crops 
growing  upon  the  land  for  a  series  of  years.  This  is  very 
desirable  even  on  land  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation, 
but  it  is  very  difficult  to  lay  down  exact  rules  to  be 
followed. 

Reasons  for  Rotating  Crops. — We  rotate  crops  for  at  least 
six  reasons:  (1)  To  avoid  insect  enemies,  as  in  the 
case  of  onions  and  turnips,  which  are  often  liable  to  serious 
insect  injuries  when  grown  more  than  one  year  on  the  same 
land.  Turnips  are  especially  liable  to  injury  from  insects 
when  grown  in  the  same  place  successively. 

(2)  To  avoid  injuries  from  fungous  diseases,  i.  e.,  in 
case  of  potato  and  beet  scab,  onion  and  melon  rust,  corn 
smut,  etc. 

(3)  To  increase  the  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil,  and  for 
this  purpose  we  may  seed  down  the  land  to  grass  or  clover. 

(4)  To  deepen  the  soil  and  add  nitrogen  to  it  as  well  as 
humus,  as  when  clover  is  grown  on  the  land. 

(5)  To  get  rid  of  weed  seeds  in  the  soil. 

(6)  To  use  the  plant  food  in  the  land  to  best  advantage, 
since  crops  vary  very  much  in  the  amount  of  the  different 
elements  which  enter  into  their  composition.     Leguminous 
crops  like  clover,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  improve  the  land  on 
which  they  grow,  while  most  other  crops  exhaust  the  soil. 
Some  plants  excel  others  in  their  power  to  search  for  plant 
food,  or  to  take  plant  food  from  the  soil.     Some  plants 
feed  near  the  surface  largely,  while  others  take  their  food 
mostly     from    a    lower     level.     Root    crops  should   not 
follow  root  crops,  nor  should  vines  follow  vines  for  many 
years  in  succession  on  the  same  land. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  25 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  location  and  soil  are  best  for  early  crops? 

2.  What  location  and  soil  are  best  for  late  crops? 

3.  Under  what  conditions  will  it  pay  to  irrigate? 

4.  When  should  the  land  be  mulched? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  cultivation? 

6.  What  is  humus  and  how  does  it  affect  the  soil? 

7.  What  is  an  acre  inch  of  water  and  how  many  barrels  does  it 
contain? 

8.  When  will  it  pay  to  pump  water  for  irrigation? 

9.  How  may  a  good,  small,  cheap  reservoir  be  made? 

10.  What  kind  of  land  is  best  adapted  to  irrigation? 

11.  Give  six  rules  for  applying  water  to  land. 

12.  What  is  meant  by  sub  irrigation? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  rotation  of  crops? 

14.  Give  six  reasons  for  rotating  crops. 

15.  What  crops  improve  the  land  on  which  they  grow  and  why? 

16.  How  does  the  Skinner  system  differ  from  other  methods  of 
irrigation? 


CHAPTER  II 
MANURES 

Classes. — We  might  group  manures  under  three  heads 
as  follows:  Stable  or  Barnyard  Manure;  Green  Manure, 
or  manure  furnished  by  cover  crops;  and  Commercial 
Fertilizers,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  and  tankage. 

Stable  manure  is  best  for  general  garden  purposes  on 
all  soils,  since  it  not  only  returns  the  food  elements,  but 
also  supplies  humus.  A  continued  application  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers  for  several  years,  without  adding  to  the 
organic  matter,  is  apt  to  injure  the  soil  so  that  the  fertiliz- 
er is  not  effective.  When  this  happens,  resort  must  be  had  to 
either  barnyard  manures  or  cover  crops  plowed  under 
or  both. 

Most  Valuable  Elements  in  Manures. — While  there  are 
twelve  or  more  elements  that  enter  into  the  composition 
of  cultivated  plants,  yet  only  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potash  are  the  essential  elements  usually  not  abundant 
in  agricultural  soils.  Calcium,  magnesium,  sulphur,  and 
iron  are  the  other  essential  elements  to  plant  growth,  and 
these  are  generally  abundant  in  soils.  Barnyard  manure 
is  a  complete  fertilizer;  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potas- 
sium are  the  valued  constituents  of  commercial  fertilizers. 
Nitrogen  is  commonly  valued  at  fifteen  cents  a  pound, 
and  phosphorus  and  potash  each  five  cents  a  pound. 

Humus. — The  amount  of  humus  in  a  soil  is  of  first 
importance  in  determining  its  producing  power.  Humus 
is  decaying  and  decayed  organic  matter.  It  is  the  decaying 
humus  that  gives  life  to  the  soil.  It  is  the  seat  of  bacterial 
action  that  results  in  the  production  of  plant  food.  By 


MANURES  21 

far  the  most  important  plant  food  element  thus  made 
into  an  available  form  for  plants  is  nitrogen. 

Besides  being  a  great  storehouse  of  plant  food,  humus 
improves  the  tilth  of  soils  by  making  heavy  soils  more 
friable  and  light  soils  less  open,  and  also  increases  the  water- 
holding  capacity. 

Stable  manure  contains  a  large  amount  of  humus- 
forming  materials,  which  undoubtedly  add  very  much  to 
its  value,  and  it  is  probably  on  this  account  that  it  often 
gives  better  returns  than  commercial  fertilizers  contain- 
ing the  same  quantities  of  what  are  termed  the  essential 
elements. 

The  action  of  manures  in  the  soil  can  be,  and  general- 
ly is,  both  direct  and  indirect.  Manures  act  directly  when 
they  contain  available  plant  food  or  when  by  their  decay 
they  yield  it  to  the  plant;  they  act  indirectly  when  they 
cause  chemical  action  that  decomposes  soil  particles  and 
sets  free  mineral  plant  food  from  the  soil  itself.  Almost 
all  manures  act  in  this  indirect  way  to  some  extent.  A 
moderate  application  of  stable  manure,  by  its  decomposi- 
tion (which  is  chemical  action)  in  the  soil,  has  been  known 
to  increase  the  temperature  of  the  soil  by  three  degrees. 
Lime  in  itself  is  a  plant  food  and  is  largely  used  by  some 
crops.  Most  soils,  however,  contain  it  in  great  abundance, 
yet  if  quicklime  be  added  to  a  soil  already  rich  in  common 
limestone  it  generally  serves  to  increase  growth.  This 
is  not  due  to  the  plant  taking  up  more  lime,  but 
rather  to  the  fact  that  the  quicklime  starts  chemical  action 
in  the  soil  by  which  some  of  the  locked-up  stores  of  plant 
food,  especially  potassium,  are  made  available.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  unleached  wood  ashes,  which,  however, 
contain  potash  in  addition  to  lime.  Common  salt  also 
acts  to  some  extent  as  a  fertilizer,  but  it  is  of  no  value  as  a 
plant  food. 


28 


VEGETABLE  GARDEN  IN  a 


Ground  limestone  may  be  used  to  supply  lime.     This 

has  the  advantage  of  not  destroying  humus,  as  is  the  case 

with  quicklime.     The  lime  is  not,  however,  given  up  as 

quickly  to  the  plant,   but  gradually  becomes  available. 

COMPOSITION  OF  VEGETABLES  AND  MANURES 

In  the  following  tables  are  shown  the  amounts  of 
fertilizing  elements  contained  in  vegetables  and  in  the 
various  farm  manures  and  commercial  fertilizers.  These 
figures  are  from  eastern  United  States  and  European 
sources.  The  climatic  conditions  in  these  places  are  quite 
different  from  those  in  many  sections  of  the  Western 
states,  where  the  actual  amount  of  ash  ingredients  in 
plants,  especially  in  dry  years,  may  greatly  exceed  the 
amounts  here  given.  The  relation  or  these  tables  to  one 
another  is  worthy  of  special  study,  since  they  show  what 
the  plants  need  and  what  the  fertilizing  materials  supply. 
TABLE  I. — COMPOSITION  OF  VEGETABLES. 


Water 

Ash 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Potash 

Artichokes  .  . 

Per  ct. 
81  50 

Per  a. 
0  99 

Per  ft. 
0  36 

Per  ct. 
0  17 

Per  ct. 
0  48 

Asparagus  stems  .  .   .  .    

93.96 

0.67 

0.29 

0.08 

0.29 

Beans,  lim  i  .  .  .  ;    

68.46 

1.69 

Beans,  string 

87  23 

0  76 

Beets  red 

88  47 

1  04 

0  24 

*0  09 

*0  44 

Cabbages  

90.52 

1.40 

0.38 

•0.11 

*0  43 

Carrots 

88  59 

1  02 

0  16 

0  09 

0  51 

Cauliflower  
Chorogi,  tubers  

90.82 
78.90 

0.81 
1.09 

0.13 
1.92 

0.16 
0  19 

0.36 
0  64 

Chorogi,  whole  plant   

78.33 

1.02 

Cucumbers  

95.99 

0.46 

0.16 

6.12 

0  24 

Eggplant  

92.93 

0  50 

Horseradish   root 

76  68 

1  87 

0  36 

0  07 

1  16 

Kohlrabi  

91.08 

1.27 

0.48 

0.27 

0  43 

Lettuce,  leaves  

86.28 

1.71 

Lettuce,  stems  

88.46 

1.18 

Lettuce,  whole  plant  ... 

93.68 

1.61 

0.23 

*0.07 

*0  37 

Muskmelons,  interior  juice  

92.61 

1.01 

Muskmelons,  pulp  

76.44 

1.49 

Muskmelons,  pulp  juice. 

90.53 

0.56 

Muskmelons,  rind  

91.15 

0.68 

Mustard,  white  

84.19 

2.25 

Okra  

87.41 

0.74 

Onions 

87.55 

0  57 

0  14 

0  04 

0  10 

Parsnips  

80.34 

1.03 

0.22 

0.19 

0  62 

Peas,  Canada  field  

12.48 

2.36 

MANURES 


29 


TABLE  I. — COMPOSITION  OF  VEGETABLES.  { — Continued. 


Water 

Ash 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Potash 

Peas   garden 

Per  ct. 
12  62 

Per  ct. 
3  11 

Per  ct. 
3  58 

Per  ct. 
0  84 

Per  ct. 
1  01 

Peas,  green  

79.93 

0  78 

Peas     small     (Lathyrus     sativus), 
whole  plant  

85.80 

5.94 

2.50 

0.59 

1.99 

Pumpkins,  flesh    .                 

93  39 

0  67 

Pumpkins   rind  

86.23 

1.36 

Pumpkins,  seeds  and  stringymatter 

76.86 

1  51 

Pumpkins,  whole  fruit.  .  . 

92  27 

0  63 

*0  11 

*0  16 

*0  09 

Rhubarb,  roots  

74.35 

2.28 

0.55 

0.06 

0.53 

Rhubarb,  stems    .  .  . 

92  67 

0  94 

Rhubarb,  stems  and  leaves  
Rutabagas...    . 

91.67 
88  61 

1.72 
1  15 

0.13 
0.19 

0.02 
0  12 

0.36 
0  49 

Spinach  

92.42 

1.94 

0.49 

0.16 

0.27 

Squashes,  flesh  .    . 

88.09 

1  72 

Squashes,  rind  
Squashes,  seeds  and  stringy  matter 

82.00 
74.03 

1.21 
1.39 

Squashes,  whole  fruit.  . 

94  88 

0  41 

Sweet  corn,  cobs  

80.10 

0.59 

0.21 

0.05 

0.22 

Sweet  corn,  husks  
Sweet  corn,  kernels  

86.19 
82.14 

0.56 
0.56 

0.18 
0.46 

0.07 
0.07 

0.22 
0.24 

Sweet  corn,  stalks  
Sweet  potatoes,  tubers 

80.86 
71  26 

1.25 
1  00 

0.28 
*0.24 

0.14 
*0  08 

0.41 
*0  37 

vSweet  potatoes,  vines  

41.55 

5.79 

Tomatoes,  fruitf  .  .  . 

93  64 

0  47 

0116 

0  05 

0  27 

Tomatoes,  roots  

73.31 

11.72 

0.24 

0.06 

0.29 

Tomatoes,  vines.. 

83.61 

3  00 

0.32 

0'.07 

0.50 

Turnips 

90  46 

0  80 

0  18 

0  10 

0  39 

Watermelons,  juice  

93.05 

0.20 

Watermelons,  pulp.  .  .  . 

91  87 

0  33 

Watermelons,  rind  

89.97 

1.24 

Watermelons,  seeds  

48.37 

1.34 

*Wolff.         fSugar  in  fruit,  3.05  per  cent.;  acid  (malic\  0.46  per  cent. 
J  Compiled  by  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

TABLE  II. — COMPOSITION  OF  FARM  MANURES. 


Mois- 
ture 

Nitro- 
gen 

Potash 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Lime 

Cattle  excrement  (solid,  fresh)  .  .    . 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
0  29 

Per  ct. 
0  10 

Per  ct. 
0.17 

Perct. 

Cattle  urine  (fresh) 

0  58 

0  49 

Hen  manure  (fresh)  

60.00 

1.10 

0  56 

0  85 

Horse  excrement  (solid) 

0  44 

0  35 

0  17 

Horse  urine  (fresh) 

1  55 

1  50 



Human  excrement  (solid)  .... 

77.20 

1  00 

0  25 

1  09 

Human  urine.  ... 

95  90 

0  60 

0  20 

0  17 

Pigeon  manure  (dry)   . 

10  00 

3  20 

1  00 

1  90 

2  10 

Poudrette  (night  soil)  
Sheep  excrement  (sol- 
id, fresh)  

50.00 

0.80 
0  55 

0.30 
0  15 

1.40 
0  31 

0.80 

Sheep  urine  (fresh) 

1  95 

2  26 

0  01 

Stable  manure  (mixed)  

73.27 

0.50 

0  60 

0.30 

Swine  excrement   (sol- 
id, fresh) 

0  60 

0  13 

0  41 

Swine  urine  (fresh)  

0.43 

0  83 

007 

Barnyard  manure  (av- 
erage)   

68.87 

0.49 

0.43 

0.32 



30 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


TABLE  III.— COMPOSITION  OF  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZING  MATERIALS. 


Mois- 
ture 

1 

Nitro- 
gen 

Pot- 
ash 

Phosphoric  acid 

Lime 

Solu- 
ble 

Re- 
verted 

Total 

Acid  phosphate 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Apatite 

36  08 

Ashes  (anthracite  coal) 
Ashes          (bituminous 
coal)  ... 

0.10 

0.10 

0.40 
1.20 

0.40 

Ashes  (lime  kiln) 

15.45 

1.14 
1.51 

1.70 
15.00 
3.80 
35.89 
28.28 

48.50 
28.08 

34.00 
35  to  40 

'  44.'89  ' 

Ashes  (wood,  leached) 
Ashes,       (wood,      un- 
leached) 

30.22 
12.50 

1  27 

5.25 

Basic  slag    . 

2.'37  ' 

li24  ' 

Bat  guano  

40.09 
7.00 

8.20 

1.31 

Bone  ash.    .  .  . 

Bone  black  
Bone  black  (dissolved) 
Bonemeal  .... 

4.60 

15.40 
0.40 

"  , 
13 

1.30 
7.60 

53 

17.00 
23.25 

17.60 
20.10 
29  90 

7.50 

4.05 
2.60 

Bone  meal  (dissolved) 
Bone  meal  (free  from 
fat)  .  

6.20 

Bone  meal  (from  glue 
factory) 

1.70 

Carribean  guano  
Castor  pomace 

7.31 
9.50 
7.80 

7.75 

s.'s'o  ' 

7.10 

4.30 
1  67 

"i.'io" 

22.75 
1.80 
1.50 

26.77 
1.75 
8.85 

3  10 

39.95 
9.60  ' 

6i50 

Cotton-hull  ashes  
Cotton-seed  meal  (de- 
corticated)   
Cotton-seed  meal  (un- 
decorticated) 

1.25 

3.10 

Cuba  guano 

24  27 

13.35 
1.91 

Dried  blood  
Dried  fish 

12.50 
12.75 
22  28 

10.52 
7.25 



0.55 

2.60 

8.25 

43.66 

Horn  and  hoof  waste  .  . 
Kainit 

10.17 
3.20 

13.25 

1.83 

13  54 

1.15 
12.45 

Krugite  .  .            

4.82 
12.09 
13.32 
50.00 
60.00 
2.00 

8.42 

Meat  scrap 

10.44 
0.76 
1.10 
0.40 

2.07 

Mono  Island  guano.  .  . 
Muck 

"oils' 

0.35 
51.48 

7.55 

21.88 
0.10 

37.49 

Mud  (salt)  

0.10 

0.90 

Muriate  of  potash 

Navassa  phosphate  .  .  . 
Nitrate  of  potash  
Nitrate  of  soda  
Oleomargarine  refuse.. 
Peat     

7.60 
1.93 
1.40 
8.54 
61.50 
14.81 

2.25 

34.27 

37.45 

13.09 
15.70 
12.12 
0.85 
7.35 

45.19 

0  88 

0.18 
2.65 

0.08 
15.30 

24.50 

Peruvian  guano  
Phosphates  from  Flor- 
idaf                       .    . 

3.20 

4.10 

28.50 
20.93 

1.58 
'  33.46 

Plaster  (pure)  t 

Sewage  sludge  (precip- 
itated) 

88.49 
5  54 

0.05 

0.05 
1  83 

0.10 

Soot 

Spent  tanbark  ashes  .  . 

3.61 

2.04 



1.61 

MANURES 


31 


TABLE  III.— COMPOSITION  OF  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZING  MATERIALS 
— Continued. 


Mois- 
ture 

Nitro- 
gen 

Pot- 
ash 

Phosphoric  acid 

Lime 

Solu- 
ble 

Re- 
verted 

Total 

Sumac  waste  
Sulphate  of  ammonia  . 
Sulphate     of     potash 
and  magnesia  

Per  ct. 
63.06 
1.00 

4.75 

Per  ct. 
1.19 
20.50 

Per  ct. 
3.25 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
1.14 

25.50 

5.57 

Sulphate      of      potash 
(high  grade)  

2.54 

23.40 

Tankage  
Tobacco  stalks 

10.00 
6.18 
10.00 

6.70 
3.71 
2.35 

"'5.62' 
8.20 
3.92 

0.30 

5.10 

11.80 
0.65 
0.70 

2.'22  ' 
4.20 

Tobacco  stems  

Wool  washings  

Wool  waste  

is.  so 

6.50 

*1.20 

0.35 

0.11 

*Sometimes  as  high  as  5  per  cent. 

fRaw  rock  phosphate  has  from  18  to  30  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid. 

jNova  Scotia  plaster  contains  94  per  cent  pure  gypsum  and  4  per  cent  carbonate 
of  lime;  Onondaga  and  Cayuga,  65-75  per  cent  gypsum  and  18-28  per  cent  carbonate 
of  lime. 

Animal  Manures. — Manure  from  animals  of  the  same 
class  may  vary  greatly  in  quality  according  to  the  kind  of 
food  and  the  condition  and  age  of  the  animals.  Fat 
animals  fed  on  food  rich  in  nitrogen  (grains)  produce  the 
best  manures.  Young,  growing  animals  that  are  fed  on 
poor  food,  such  as  straw,  swale  hay,  etc.,  produce  very 
inferior  manure.  The  manure  from  young,  growing 
animals  or  from  milking  cows  is  much  inferior  to  that  from 
fat  steers,  since,  in  the  case  of  the  young  animals, 
a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  is 
required  to  build  up  the  animal  body.  In  the  case  of  the 
milking  cow  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  is  required  for  the 
production  of  the  casein  of  the  milk,  while  very  little  of 
the  nitrogen  in  the  food  is  retained  in  the  body  of  the 
fattening  animal.  The  fats,  oils,  and  starchy  materials 
that  animals  use  largely  are  of  no  value  as  manures.  The 
nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphorus  are  thrown  off  by  the 
fat  animal  in  the  waste  products.  Manures  rich 


32  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

in  nitrogen  ferment  most  rapidly,  other  things  being  equal. 
The  urine  is  generally  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  since  all  it  con- 
tains is  soluble  it  is  of  more  value  than  the  solid  excrements 
of  animals,  and  special  effort  should  be  made  to  save  it. 

The  heating  of  manures  and  other  organic  material  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  various  kinds  of  bacteria  that 
break  down  the  composition  of  the  materials  in  which 
they  grow  and  produce  chemical  changes  that  result  in 
the  formation  of  heat.  Fire  fanged  is  a  term  applied  to 
manure  which  has  heated,  by  the  action  of  fungi,  to  a  very 
high  temperature  without  sufficient  moisture.  It  is  gen- 
erally white  in  color  and  has  lost  much  of  its  texture,  and 
parts  of  it  may  appear  to  have  been  burned  to  ashes. 
When  in  this  condition  manure  is  regarded  as  of  little  value, 
for  it  has  probably  lost  much  if  not  all  of  its  nitrogen,  and 
all  the  ferments  which  it  contained  are  destroyed. 
And  it  is  probable  that  the  bacteria  and  other  ferments 
which  are  added  to  soils  by  manure  are  often  of  much 
importance  to  them. 

Horse  manure  is  loose  and  light,  and  ferments  very 
quickly.  On  this  account  it  is  especially  valuable  for  early 
spring  crops,  as  it  makes  the  soil  loose,  thus  permitting 
the  air  to  penetrate  it  easily,  while  by  its  rapid  fermen- 
tation it  warms  the  land.  It  is  valuable  to  mix  with  cow 
and  swine  manure,  since  it  hastens  the  fermentation  of  these 
cold  manures.  On  account  of  its  heating  qualities  it  is  used 
to  warm  hotbeds. 

Near  the  large  cities  gardeners  pay  from  25  cents  to 
$2  per  load  of  from  two  to  four  tons  for  horse  manure,  in 
some  cases  buying  out  the  product  of  a  barn  for  a  year 
or  series  of  years  at  a  fixed  price.  The  difficulty  of  ob- 
taining horse  manure  is  compelling  some  gardeners  to 
use  glass  structures  or  to  take  up  some  other  line  of  work. 


MANURES  33 

Hen  manure  is  one  of  the  richest  farm  manures,  for 
the  reason  that  poultry  live  on  highly  concentrated  food 
and  that  the  liquid  and  solid  excrements  are  voided  to- 
gether. It  heats  quite  readily  and  violently  and  should 
be  used  very  sparingly  and  with  caution,  since  if  put  in 
contact  with  the  roots  or  stems  of  plants  it  is  very  liable 
to  burn  them.  It  should  be  handled  with  great  care  and 
be  kept  dry.  If  wet,  it  ferments  and  parts  with  its  nitro- 
gen in  the  form  of  ammonia  gas,  which  is  readily  percep- 
tible to  the  nose.  For  the  same  reason  it  should  not  be 
mixed  with  lime  or  wood  ashes  unless  used  at  once.  It 
acts  very  quickly,  and  on  this  account  is  valuable  for  early 
crops  or  to  apply  during  the  growth  of  a  crop  when  the 
available  manure  in  the  land  appears  to  have  been  ex- 
hausted. It  may  be  composted  with  dry  peat  or  muck, 
when  it  is  more  safely  applied  than  if  clear,  and  there  is 
less  danger  of  loss  from  heating.  Twenty  to  thirty  bushels 
of  hen  manure  is  generally  sufficient  for  one  acre  when 
used  with  stable  manure. 

Cattle  and  swine  manures  are  rather  slow  in  action, 
consequently  they  are  not  as  desirable  for  early  crops  as  horse 
manure,  while  they  are  excellent  for  late  crops.  For  this 
latter  purpose  they  are  often  better  than  horse  manure. 
If  they  are  mixed  with  horse  manure  they  ferment  very 
rapidly. 

Sheep  manure  is  a  very  concentrated  manure  and  heats 
rapidly.  It  is  one  of  the  best  farm  manures. 

Mixing  Manures. — It  may  often  be  a  good  plan  to  mix  the 
different  kinds  of  animal  manures  for  general  application, 
as  in  this  way  all  seem  to  be  improved.  Hen  manure  is 
an  exception  and,  as  a  rule,  should  be  applied  separately. 
Lime,  wood  ashes,  or  other  material  of  an  alkaline  nature 
should  never  be  mixed  with  stable  manure  of  any  kind 


34  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

unless  a  considerable  amount  of  loam,  peat,  or  other 
material  is  added  to  absorb  the  ammonia,  which  is  always 
liberated  when  nitrogenous  and  alkaline  substances  are 
thus  mixed.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mix  ground  bone,  tankage, 
and  other  slow-acting  fertilizers  with  heating  stable  manure, 
as  by  so  doing  the  plant  food  they  contain  is  made  more  avail- 
able and  the  stable  manure  is  greatly  improved  in  quality. 

The  Manure  Pile. — If  early  garden  crops  are  to  be 
grown,  it  is  necessary  to  have  fine,  well-rotted  manure, 
and  this  makes  the  manure  pile  necessary.  It  should  be 
placed  so  that  as  little  waste  as  possible  will  occur  from 
leaching  by  rains.  When  a  manure  pile  is  to  remain  in 
one  place  for  a  considerable  time  it  should  be  made  upon 
a  bed  of  leaves,  peat,  loam,  rotted  sods  or  other  absorbent, 
about  one  foot  in  thickness,  which  will  catch  and  retain 
any  fertilizing  material  that  may  leach  through  the  pile. 

Fermentation  may  be  controlled  by  keeping  the  pile 
compact  and  moist.  If  practicable,  the  pile  should  be 
made  where  it  will  be  protected  from  the  sun  and  from 
drying  winds.  The  height  of  the  pile  should  depend 
somewhat  on  the  kind  of  manure  and  the  season  of  the 
year  when  it  is  made.  Manures  that  heat  readily  should 
be  piled  about  six  feet  deep.  When  the  pile  is  quite  warm 
the  manure  should  be  turned  over.  This  operation  should 
be  performed  very  thoroughly  as  often  as  the  pile  gets  hot. 
All  the  lumps  should  be  broken  up  and  the  whole  pile 
turned  to  the  bottom  of  the  bed  on  which  it  is  placed. 
The  absorbents  of  the  bed  should  be  mixed  evenly  through- 
out the  pile  and  the  cold  manure  from  the  outside  put 
on  the  inside  of  the  pile  so  that  it  may  decompose  the  more 
evenly. 

If  the  pile  appears  dry  on  the  inside,  apply  water,  or, 
what  is  better,  the  urine  from  the  stable  should  be  added 


MANURES  35 

to  assist  fermentation,  as  this  cannot  take  place  satis- 
factorily in  dry  manure,  and  the  lack  of  water  may  result  in 
serious  loss.  The  number  of  times  a  manure  pile  should  be 
turned  over  will  depend  on  the  crop  to  which  it  is  to  be  appli- 
ed and  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  manure.  This  is  a 
matter  which  must  be  left  to  the  good  judgment  of  the 
individual  manager,  but  some  of  the  factors  bearing  on  this 
will  be  discussed  further  on. 

The  compost  heap  can  be  made  a  prolific  source  of 
homemade  manure.  Every  farm  and  garden  should  have 
one  of  sufficiently  large  proportion  to  take  care  of  all  refuse 
organic  material  about  the  place.  It  should  be  made  about 
as  follows :  Select  a  place  handy  to  get  at  but  where  there  is 
no  standing  water,  and  put  down  first  a  bed  one  foot  deep 
of  old  sods  or  muck,  and  on  this  pile  all  the  refuse  material 
as  it  collects  in  various  places.  This  material  may  consist 
of  old  straw,  leaves,  and  occasional  load  of  heating  manure, 
rotten  vegetables,  etc.  This  should  be  turned  over  oc- 
casionally, by  hand  if  necessary;  but  the  best  plan  is  to 
have  the  compost  heap  in  a  hog  yard  and  to  it  haul  manure 
as  it  collects  near  the  stables.  If  manure  is  piled  upon  a 
good  bed  of  rotten  sod  it  will  not  lose  much  by  leaching, 
nor  will  it  lose  anything  by  heating  if  a  sufficient  number 
of  hogs  have  the  run  of  it  to  keep  it  well  worked  up,  taking 
the  place  of  hand  turning. 

Green  Manures. — Where  plenty  of  land  is  available, 
the  gardener  may  often  use  .some  green  crop,  as  rye,  cow- 
peas,  wheat,  or  some  of  the  clovers,  as  a  cover  or  a  green- 
manuring  crop,  plowing  it  under  when  weather  and  soil 
conditions  are  best.  Such  crops  not  only  utilize  and  save 
for  future  use  plant  food  that  continues  to  be  elaborated 
in  the  soil  and  which  might  suffer  loss  from  leaching  or 
otherwise,  but  also  is  an  excellent  means  of  increasing 


36  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

the  store  of  life-giving  humus.  Legume  crops  are  es- 
pecially valuble  for  this  purpose.  In  some  districts  a 
green  crop  is  planted  as  soon  as  potatoes  are  taken  off 
and  is  plowed  under  as  soon  as  large  enough. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. —By  commercial  fertilizers  is 
meant  those  manures  that  are  commonly  sold  by  the  trade. 
When  of  a  high  price  they  are  generally  of  a  guaranteed 
composition,  and  they  should  be  bought  at  a  valuation 
based  on  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric 
acid  which  they  contain  in  an  available  condition  for 
plants.  The  more  available  the  form  in  which  these  materials 
exist  in  the  fertilizer,  the  more  valuable  it  is  generally  con- 
sidered. Most  states  require  a  guaranteed  analysis  to 
accompany  the  packages  in  which  the  fertilizers  are  sold, 
and  exercise  some  supervision  over  the  business.  Among 
the  most  common  commercial  fertilizers  are  the  following : — 

Tankage. — Tankage  is  a  refuse  product  from  slaugh- 
tering establishments,  which  after  being  deprived  of  its 
fat  is  brought  to  dryness  and  ground.  It  is  very  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  but  contains  very  little 
potash.  Most  of  the  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  that 
it  contains  is  immediately  available  to  the  roots  of  plants. 
It  is  probably  the  cheapest  source  of  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phoric acid  to  be  found  in  the  Western  states.  It  varies 
considerably  in  composition,  and  this  may  sometimes  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  in  some  establishments 
the  blood  is  separated  from  the  other  offal,  thus  reducing 
the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  tankage. 

Tankage  is  rather  a  slow-acting  fertilizer.  It  may  safely 
be  used  in  quantities  of  less  than  1000  pounds  per  acre  if 
applied  broadcast  and  worked  into  the  soil.  Four  hundred 
pounds  per  acre  is  generally  considered  a  good  application. 
It  may  safely  be  used  in  these  quantities  around  grow- 


MANURES  37 

ing  plants  of  cabbage,  corn,  lettuce,  etc.,  provided  it  is 
spread  out  evenly  and  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
roots  of  the  plants. 

Ground  blood  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  is  quite 
difficult  to  dry  thoroughly.  If  it  is  at  all  moist  it  is  likely 
to  heat  badly.  It  is  a  quick-acting  fertilizer,  and  is  seldom 
used  without  being  mixed  with  other  materials. 

Ground  bone  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid ;  but  fresh  bones 
are  better  for  this  purpose  than  dry  bones,  since  in  addi- 
tion to  phosphoric  acid  they  have  quite  a  large  percentage 
of  nitrogen,  which  is  very  small  in  amount  in  bones  that 
are  old  and  dry.  It  is  always  best  to  grind  fine  the  bones 
that  are  to  be  used  on  the  land,  and  in  many  cases  to  then 
mix  them  with  fermenting  stable  manure.  Ground  bone 
is  said  to  be  a  lasting  fertilizer  because  its  effect  can  be 
seen  for  several  years.  If  bones  are  burned  the  nitrogen 
is  wasted.  If  fresh  bones  are  mixed  with  unleached  wood 
ashes  they  will  be  made  soft  so  as  to  be  easily  broken  up. 
It  is  generally  applied  in  much  the  same  way  and  for  the 
same  purposes  as  tankage. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  called  also  Chili  saltpeter,  is  imported 
from  Chili.  It  looks  like  common  salt,  and  contains  about 
16  per  cent  of  nitrogen  that  is  perfectly  soluble  and  in 
form  most  available  for  the  plant.  On  this  account  only 
very  small  quantities  should  be  applied  at  one  time,  because 
if  not  taken  up  by  the  plant  it  may  be  washed  deep  into 
the  soil  out  of  reach  of  the  roots.  It  is  especially  desirable 
for  early  leaf  crops  such  as  early  spinach,  cabbage,  and 
lettuce,  and  to  apply  when  a  crop  comes  to  a  standstill. 

Nitrate  of  soda  acts  with  wonderful  quickness —  almost 
like  magic.  It  may  be  applied  several  times  to  the  growing 
crop  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  using  from  75  to  100  pounds 
per  acre  at  each  application.  It  may  be  sown  near  the 


38 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


hills  if  applied  to  cabbage,  but  for  spinach  or  similar  crops 
it  should  be  sown  broadcast  when  the  plants  are  perfectly 
dry  or  during  a  hard  rain.  If  it  sticks  to  the  leaves  it  is 
likely  to  burn  them.  If  sown  during  a  hard  rain  it  is 
quickly  dissolved  and  washed  to  the  roots  of  the  plants 
without  injury  to  the  leaves.  It  is  expensive  and  should 
never  be  used  when  a  cheaper  supply  of  nitrogenous  manure 
will  do  just  as  well.  It  may  occasionally  be  used  to  good 


Fig.  7.  Spinach  plants  grown  on  land  rich  in  rotten  stable  manure. 
The  larger  plant  received,  in  addition  to  the  stable  manure,  nitrate  of  soda  at 
the  rate  of  150  pounds  per  acre. 

advantage  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one-half  ounce  of  nitrate 
of  soda  to  one  gallon  of  water.  Such  a  solution  will  not 
injure  the  foliage  and  is  of  sufficient  strength. 

The  extensive  or  long-continued  use  of  nitrate  of  soda 
injures  the  tilth  of  the  soil,  especially  of  clay  soils.  This 
effect  may  be  overcome  by  adding  organic  matter  or  by 
using  acid  fertilizers,  like  acid  phosphate  or  ammonium 
sulphate. 


MANURES  39 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  a  by-product  from  gas  works 
and  contains  about  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  It  does  not 
act  as  quickly  as  nitrate  of  soda;  but  for  late  crops,  to  be 
applied  during  warm  weather,  it  is  one  of  the  best  sources 
of  nitrogen. 

Acid  phosphate  is  an  acidulated  bone  meal  made  by 
treating  ground  bone  or  raw  rock  phosphate  with  sulphuric 
acid,  to  render  the  phosphates  soluble.  These  are  rich 
in  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  some  acidulated  bone 
contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  nitrogen.  They 
vary  much  in  quality.  The  better  kinds  are  generally 
used  at  the  rate  of  about  400  pounds  per  acre. 

Raw  rock  phosphate,  or  "floats,"  is  perhaps  the  most 
suitable  source  of  phosphorus  for  market  gardeners.  The 
phophorus  in  this  is  slowly  available,  but  in  a  soil  rich 
in  organic  matter  it  becomes  soluble  rapidly  enough  for 
the  use  of  the  crop. 

Wood  ashes  are  rich  in  potash  and  are  a  valuable  fer- 
tilizer in  many  cases,  provided  they  have  not  been  leached ; 
if  leached  greatly  they  are  practically  worthless  as  a  fer- 
tilizer. Ashes  from  hard  wood  are  more  valuable  than 
those  from  soft  wood,  on  account  of  containing  much  more 
potash.  Ashes  are  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  for  fruit  trees 
and  plants.  About  twenty  bushels  of  unleached  hardwood 
ashes  are  generally  sufficient  for  one  acre,  but  much  more 
may  be  safely  used.  Coal  ashes  are  worthless  for  fertiliz- 
ing purposes. 

Kainit. — Potash  is  also  applied  to  the  land  in  the  form  of 
German  potash  salts,  a  grade  of  which,  known  as  kainit, 
is  very  commonly  used  as  a  fertilizer.  These  salts  are 
more  or  less  mixed  with  common  table  salt  and  other 
impurities  and  form  a  cheap  and  very  useful  supply  of 
potash.  They  are  generally  sold  on  a  valuation  based 


40  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

on  the  percentage  of  actual  potash  they  contain.  Kainit 
contains  13  per  cent  of  potash,  which  is  more  than  twice 
as  much  as  there  is  in  ordinary  unleached  wood  ashes. 
From  200  to  600  pounds  of  kainit  is  generally  applied  per 
acre. 

Lime  is  found  in  abundance  in  most  Western  soils, 
but  burned  limestone  freshly  slaked  may  often  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  small  quantities  when  large  amounts  of  stable 
manure  have  been  used  upon  the  land  for  a  number  of 
years.  It  should  not  be  used  alone,  because  it  exhausts 
the  soil. 

Land  plaster  is  sulphate  of  lime.  It  is  not  a  direct 
fertilizer,  but  is  a  soil  stimulant.  It  may  occasionally  be 
used  to  advantage  for  leguminous  crops,  such  as  clover, 
beans,  peas,  etc.,  in  applications  of  from  200  to  600  pounds 
per  acre  spread  broadcast. 

There  is  little  need  for  commercial  fertilizers  at  present 
in  most  of  the  Western  states,  and  they  should  never  be 
used  until  the  home  sources  of  manure  have  been  ex- 
hausted, and  then  only  to  supplement  rather  than  to 
replace  farm  manures,  and  as  aids  in  intensive  cultivation 
of  gardens.  They  are  generally  expensive,  and  results 
from  their  use  in  the  West  have  not  been  as  satisfactory 
as  in  the  Eastern  states. 

Those  who  use  commercial  fertilizers  of  the  better 
kinds  for  the  first  time  are  very  likely  to  use  too  much, 
seriously  injuring  the  crops  to  which  they  are  applied. 
It  is  much  better  to  use  too  little  than  too  much,  and  to 
experiment  along  this  line  in  a  small  and  inexpensive 
way  to  begin  with. 

Home  Mixing  of  Fertilizers. — Where  a  considerable 
quantity  of  commercial  fertilizer  is  used,  it  is  well  to  mix 
it  at  home,  since  the  grower  knows  that  it  contains  the 


MANURES  41 

elements  that  he  desires  in  it,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 
pay  freight  on  sand  or  other  filler.  One  is  apt  also  to  make 
more  of  a  study  of  the  effectiveness  of  the  mixture  if  he  is 
thoroughly  familiar  with  its  makeup.  Usually  the  cost 
is  less  when  the  materials  are  purchased  separately.  The 
Massachusetts  experiment  station  gives  very  clear  direc- 
tions for  computing  mixtures,  which  we  quote  as  follows: — 

'The  calculation  of  amounts  of  different  materials 
needed  to  make  a  fertilizer  of  given  composition  is  simple. 
It  is  necessary  first  to  know  the  composition  of  the  materials. 
This  is  usually  correctly  stated  by  the  guarantee.  The 
selection  of  materials  to  furnish  any  given  element  is 
determined  by  relative  prices  and  fitness.  For  the  element 
nitrogen  it  is  best  in  most  cases  to  use  nitrate  of  soda,  blood, 
or  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  something  like  tankage  or 
fish,  thus  securing  different  rates  of  availability  to  insure 
a  supply  throughout  the  growing  season. 

A  part  of  the  needed  phosphoric  acid  (rather  slow 
acting)  will  be  furnished  by  tankage  or  fish.  The  balance 
may  be  derived  either  from  acid  phosphate  or  slag  rrieal 
as  crop  or  soil  may  make  best.  The  needed  potash  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  derived  from  high-grade  sulphate. 

Example  Showing  Method  of  Calculation. 

Potato  fertilizer  to  contain: — 

Nitrogen, 3.5% 

Phosphoric   acid, 8% 

Potash, 10% 

Nitrogen  at 3.5%  =     3.5  Ibs.  in  100,  or     70  Ibs.  in  a  ton 

Phosphoric  acid  at    8.  %  =     8.    Ibs.  in  100,  or  160  Ibs.  in  a  ton 
Potash    at 10.  %  =  10.    Ibs.  in  100,  or  200  Ibs.  in  a  ton 


42  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

The  materials  to  be  used  are: — 

Nitrate  of  soda 15.5%  nitrogen 

Dried  blood 10.  %  nitrogen 

Tankage,  7.  %  nitrogen  and  8.   %  phosphoric  acid 

Acid  phosphate 14.  %  phosphoric  acid 

H.  G.  sulphate  of  potash..  .50.  %  potash 

The  nitrogen  is  to  come  in  equal  quantities  from  each 
of  the  three  materials  containing  that  element,  in  round 
numbers,  23  pounds  from  each. 

As  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  contain  15.5  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  in  order  to  find  out  how  many  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda  will  be  required  to  furnish  23  pounds  (one- 
third  of  the  70  pounds  required)  we  solve  the  proportion : — 

15.5  :  23  ::  100  :  X  =  150  pounds,  in  round  numbers 

The  fish  is  also  to  be  used  in  quantity  sufficient  to 
furnish  23  pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  as  100  pounds  of  fish 
contain  10  pounds: — 

10  :23  ::  100  :X  =  230  pounds 

Tankage  to  furnish  the  other  pounds  of  nitrogen  is 
needed.  As  100  pounds  of  tankage  contain  7  pounds 
of  nitrogen: — 

7  :  23  ::  100  :  X  =    330  pounds 

The  330  pounds  of  tankage  supply  27  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  We  need  160  pounds  in  all  and  must  there- 
fore use  acid  phosphate  to  furnish  133  pounds.  As  100 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate  contain  14  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid : — 

14  :  133  ::  100  :  X  =  950  pounds 

As  100  pounds  of  high-grade  sulphate  of  potash  contain 
50  pounds  of  potash,  and  we  need  200  pounds: — 

50  :  200  ::  100  :  X  =  400  pounds 


MANURES  43 

The  complete  mixture: — 

Nitrate  of  soda 150  Ibs.  furnishing  23  Ibs.  of  nitrogen 

Dried  blood 230  Ibs.  furnishing  23  Ibs.  of  nitrogen 

Tankage 330  Ibs.  furnishing  23  Ibs.  of  nitrogen 

and  27  Ibs.  phosphoric  acid 
Acid  phosphate 950  Ibs.  furnishing  133  Ibs.  phosphoric 

acid 
High-grade  sulphate  of  potash,    400  Ibs.  furnishing  200  Ibs.  potash 


2060  Ibs. 

It  will  be  noted  that  we  have  a  small  excess  above  one 
ton.  This  is  not  important  and  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  nearest  round  numbers  have  been  employed." 

Effect  of  Manure  on  Crops. — The  proportions  of  the 
various  plant  foods  used  by  different  crops  vary  consider- 
ably, some  using  a  larger  amount  of  one  element  and  some 
of  another.  The  visible  effects  of  the  essential  elements 
when  in  excess  in  the  soil  are  also  quite  different.  Garden 
plants  that  are  grown  especially  for  their  foliage  use  large 
quantities  of  nitrogen  and  require  it  in  order  to  be  per- 
fectly healthy,  and  seed-producing  plants  use  large  quanti- 
ties of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Where  nitrogen  in 
a  soluble  form  is  very  abundant  so  as  to  be  in  excess  in  the 
soil,  it  wrill  be  found  that  the  plants  growing  on  it  are 
noticeable  for  their  dark  green  color  and  rank  leaf  and  stem 
growth,  and  for  late  maturity  of  fruit  and  seed.  In  the 
case  of  small  grain,  it  may  result  in  such  a  weak,  soft, 
succulent  growth  that  the  stems  cannot  support  themselves 
and  they  become  "lodged,"  and  such  growth  may  be 
gained  without  an  increase  in  the  yield  of  grain.  In  the 
case  of  lawns  a  soft,  thick  sod  is  made ;  in  the  case  of  spinach, 
cabbage  and  other  leaf  crops,  vigorous,  large  plants  result; 
while  tree  and  bush  fruits,  under  such  conditions,  make  a 
soft,  late-maturing  growth  that  easily  winter-kills. 


44  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

On  the  contrary,  when  soluble  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  are  in  excess  in  the  soil,  the  plants  will  have  a  tendency 
to  produce  a  large  amount  of  seed  and  fruit  in  proportion 
to  straw  or  wood  and  to  mature  early.  This  is  a  desirable 
condition  for  heaviest  grain  and  seed  crops.  In  the  case 
of  bush  and  tree  fruits,  it  conduces  to  fruitfulness,  early 
maturity  of  wood,  and  hardiness.  These  qualities  will 
be  most  evident  if  the  nitrogen  is  under  a  normal  quantity 
in  the  soil. 

It  must  not  be  understood  from  this  that  any  of  these 
elements  are  hurtful,  for  they  are  absolutely  necessary  in 
proper  proportions  to  secure  best  results;  but  these  effects 
follow  when  they  are  greatly  in  excess. 

Fresh  Manure. — Except  in  few  instances,  fresh  manure 
in  the  garden  soil  is  not  beneficial,  and  its  presence  hinders 
intensive  cultivation  and  causes  the  land  to  dry  out  quickly. 
If  applied  to  certain  root  crops,  such  as  parsnips,  it  causes 
the  formation  of  a  large  number  of  side  roots,  rather  than 
the  long,  smooth  root  desired.  Fresh  manure  does  not 
afford  plant  food  for  some  time,  since  it  must  first  be  de- 
cayed before  it  is  of  any  value  to  plants.  Rotten  manure 
has  much  of  its  plant  food  in  an  available  condition. 

Manure  for  Early  and  Late  Crops. — Much  more  manure, 
and  more  thoroughly  rotted  manure,  is  required  for  early 
than  for  late  crops.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact 
that  early  in  the  season  fermentation  goes  on  very  slowly, 
and  unless  plant  food  is  supplied  in  a  quickly  available 
form  it  is  of  no  immediate  use  to  the  plant.  On  account 
of  the  rapid  fermentation  which  goes  on  in  the  soil  later 
in  the  season,  crops  that  mature  later  than  the  middle  of 
the  summer  may  be  able  to  use  the  plant  food  that  was 
locked  up  in  fresh  manure  in  the  spring.  For  instance, 
the  results  from  fresh  cow  manure  may  be  almost  nothing 


MANURES  45 

if  applied  in  the  spring  to  a  crop  of  early  cabbage  or  spinach, 
while  for  a  late  crop  of  cabbage  or  for  corn  it  may  answer 
very  well.  Where  an  abundance  of  well-rotted  manure 
can  not  be  obtained  in  the  spring  and  it  becomes  necessary 
to  use  partially-rotted  manure  for  an  early  crop,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  use  nitrate  of  soda  or  some  other  quick-acting 
fertilizer  to  afford  plant  food  until  the  manure  has  rotted. 

Manures  for  Leguminous  Crops. — Leguminous  crops, 
such  as  peas,  beans,  clover,  and  alfalfa,  do  not  need  as 
much  nitrogenous  manure  as  most  other  crops,  since  by 
the  aid  of  certain  bacterium  in  nodules  on  their  roots  free 
nitrogen  of  the  air  is  utilized.  Such  crops  improve  the 
land  on  which  they  grow  by  increasing  the  nitrogen  supply, 
and  in  this  respect  they  are  different  from  all  other  garden 
crops.  Legumes  are  sometimes  referred  to  as  nitrogen 
producers,  and  other  crops  as  nitrogen  consumers. 

When  to  Apply  Manure. — The  time  and  manner  of 
applying  a  fertilizer  depend  on  the  plant,  the  kind  of 
fertilizer,  the  soil,  the  amount  of  rainfall,  etc.  It  should 
usually  be  applied  in  the  spring  about  the  time  the  seed  is 
sown.  This  is  true  especially  of  farm  manures  and  the 
slower-acting  commercial  kinds.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  other 
quick-acting  kinds  may  be  applied  when  the  plant  shows 
by  slackened  growth  that  they  are  needed.  There  is  no 
set  rule  as  to  quantity  or  kind  to  apply.  This  matter 
must  be  largely  worked  out  in  individual  cases. 

Animal  manure  should  generally  be  spread  evenly  on 
the  land  and  then  be  thinly  covered  with  the  soil;  yet  for 
some  crops  it  may  sometimes  be  most  desirable  to  apply 
the  manure  in  the  hill  or  furrow.  The  amount  that  should 
be  applied  per  acre  varies  with  the  crop,  soil,  and  manure, 
and  so  no  exact  rule  can  be  given.  For  a  midsummer  or 
late-maturing  crop,  probably  twenty-five  or  thirty  tons 


46  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

of  well-rotted  stable  manure  per  acre  would  be  sufficient 
in  almost  any  case,  and  much  less  will  sometimes  be  enough, 
while  for  an  early  crop  twice  as  much  rotted  manure  might 
be  used  to  advantage.  Well-rotted  manure  should  be 
covered  with  soil  soon  after  it  is  applied  to  the  land.  If  it 
is  put  on  frozen  land  it  may  waste  by  the  soluble  parts 
being  washed  away.  But  in  the  case  of  fresh  animal 
manures  there  is  little  chance  of  loss  in  these  ways. 

The  effect  of  the  application  of  animal  manure  to  the 
land  will  remain  apparent  for  several  years,  It  is  generally 
considered  safe  to  estimate  that  not  more  than  one-third 
the  full  value  of  these  manures  is  taken  up  by  the  crop 
growing  on  the  land  the  year  it  is  applied. 

Manure  the  Growing  Crop. — Sometimes  a  crop  comes 
to  a  standstill  on  account  of  having  exhausted  some  avail- 
able fertilizing  material  in  the  soil.  In  such  cases  it  may 
be  a  good  plan  to  fertilize  the  growing  crop  with  hen 
manure,  nitrate  of  soda,  or  other  quick-acting  fertilizer 
and  cultivate  the  land  at  once.  This  may  be  done  in 
many  cases  by  applying  such  materials  to  the  crop  during 
a  hard  rain,  or,  in  a  dry  time,  by  plowing  a  furrow 
near  the  crop  and  placing  the  fertilizer  in  the  furrow.  But 
in  any  case  it  should  be  cultivated  into  the  soil  so  as  to 
become  well  mixed  through  it,  and  much  care  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  dry  fertilizer  from  coming  in  contact 
with  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Rotating  Manures. — It  is  a  good  plan  to  change  occa- 
sionally the  manures  applied  to  land;  i.  e.  when  stable 
manure  has  been  largely  used  for  some  years,  apply  some 
commercial  fertilizer,  and  when  commercial  fertilizers  have 
been  used  for  some  time  recourse  should  be  had  to  stable 
manure. 


MANURED  47 

Liquid  Manure. — Liquid  manure  is  sometimes  used 
in  encouraging  the  growth  of  plants.  It  should  never  be 
made  from  fresh  manure,  but  from  that  which  is  thoroughly 
rotted.  Urine  may  be  used  as  a  liquid  manure  if  well 
decomposed,  but  it  should  always  be  used  with  great 
caution  and  never  applied  to  plants  if  fresh  or  undiluted. 
Cow  and  horse  manure  are  generally  preferred  for  making 
liquid  manure.  The  vessel  in  which  it  is  to  be  made  should 
be  one-third  full  of  manure  and  filled  up  with  water.  The 
whole  should  then  be  stirred  and  allowed  to  settle.  The 
clear  water  is  then  used  for  watering  plants. 

Liquid  fertilizer  is  also  made  by  dissolving  nitrate  of 
soda  in  water,  as  mentioned  under  that  head.  Ammonia 
is  sometimes  used  in  very  small  quantities  in  water  applied 
to  plants,  especially  to  house  plants,  with  good  results. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

'1.     What  essential  elements  are  sometimes  lacking  in  the  soil? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  direct  and  indirect  fertilizers? 

3.  Why  are  manures  from  young,  growing  animals  less  valuable 
than  from  mature  animals? 

4.  What  causes  the  heating  of  stable  manure? 

5.  To  what  extent  are  the  different  farm  manures  valuable  for 
farm  crops? 

6.  What  is  the  result  of  mixing  alkaline  substances  with  manure? 

7.  What   is   the   result   of   mixing   commercial   fertilizers   with 
manures? 

8.  How  should  farm  manure  be  cared  for? 

9.  What  is  a  compost  heap,  and  how  made? 

10.  What  are  commercial  fertilizers,  and  in  what  way  are  they 
valuable? 

11.  What  is  tankage?     Nitrate  of  soda?     Kainit?     W'hat  plant 
food  elements  do  they  contain? 

12.  What  part  of  the  plant  does  each  of  the  elements  nitrogen, 
potash,  and  phosphorus  affect  when  in  excess  in  the  soil? 


48  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

13.  What  kind  of  manure  should  be  used  for  early  crops,  and 
why? 

14.  What  kind  of  manure  should  be  used  for  late  crops,  and 
why? 

15.  How  should  commercial  fertilizers  be  applied  to  the  land? 

16.  How  should  animal  manure  be  applied  to  the  land? 


CHAPTER  III 

GARDEN  TILLAGE 

Objects  of  Tillage. — By  the  proper  cultivation  of  the 
garden  we  accomplish  three  things :  (1)  The  weeds  are  kept 
out  so  that  they  do  not  shade  or  take  away  valuable  plant 
food  and  moisture  from  the  plants  which  we  desire  to 
perfect.  (2)  The  surface  soil  is  brought  into  best  condi- 
tion to  resist  drought,  that  is,  into  the  best  condition  to  avail 
itself  to  the  utmost  of  the  stores  of  water  in  the  subsoil  and 
to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  this  water  from  the  surface 
soil.  Erosion  or  washing  of  the  soil  is  also  prevented  to 
some  extent.  (3)  The  inert  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  made 
soluble  by  chemical  action,  due  to  the  letting  in  of  water, 
heat,  and  air  by  the  stirring  of  the  soil. 

Prevention  and  Killing  of  Weeds. — The  methods 
best  adapted  for  keeping  weeds  out  of  the  garden  are  many 
and  varied.  They  depend  much  upon  the  condition  and 
kind  of  soil  in  which  the  weeds  grow,  and  upon  the  kind  of 
crop  and  the  habits  of  the  weeds  themselves.  The  most 
important  step  in  making  easy  the  prevention  of  weeds  in 
the  garden  is  the  harrowing  or  other  thorough  cultivation 
of  the  land  just  before  the  planting  of  the  seed,  to  kill  the 
young  weeds.  If  this  is  done  thoroughly  the  weeds  do  not 
have  any  better  chance  than  the  crop.  If  this  is  not  done 
the  weeds  will  be  ahead  of  the  crop  in  growth,  and  if  started 
ever  so  little  when  the  crop  is  planted  the  result  generally 
is  that  the  crop  is  seriously  overgrown  by  them  before  it  is 
large  enough  to  be  cultivated. 

When  garden  seeds  that  require  a  long  time  to  germinate 
are  sown,  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  rake  over  the  land 


no 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


lightly  with  an  ordinary  fine-toothed  rake,  even  before  the 
crop  appears  above  the  ground,  providing  the  work  is  so 
carefully  done  as  not  to  disturb  the  seeds.  This  is  an  easy 
matter  in  case  of  the  larger  garden  seeds,  while  it  would  be 
impossible  with  the  finer  seeds,  as  they  are  invariably 
planted  shallow.  When  the  seed  is  sown  with  a  drill  the 
line  of  the  row  may  be  plainly  seen  even  before  the  plants 
come  up,  thus  making  it  easy  to  commence  cultivating  in 


Fig.  8.     Types  of  garden  hoes. 

advance  of  the  weeds.  In  case  of  such  crops  as  carrots, 
onions,  beets,  and  parsnips,  which  are  quite  delicate  when 
young,  cultivation  should  begin  with  some  hand  garden 
cultivator,  even  if  it  is  intended  later  on  to  cultivate  with 
a  horse  implement  and  the  crop  is  planted  with  this  pur- 
pose in  view.  Such  close  and  careful  work  can  not  be  done 
with  any  horse  implement  now  in  use  as  with  the  best  hand 
implements. 

Careful  early  cultivation  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
since  if  the  weeds  are  removed  when  they  are  young  the 
work  of  weeding  is  small.  If  allowed  to  remain  until  well 
rooted,  their  removal  is  often  a  very  serious  matter,  and 
frequently,  if  neglected  at  this  early  stage,  the  weeds  become 
so  firmly  established  as  to  make  it  a  question  whether  to 
remove  them  or  to  plow  under  the  whole  crop ;  and  often  it 


GARDEN  TILLAGE  51 

is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  adopt  the  latter  alternative. 
Aside  from  its  effect  in  the  prevention  of  weeds,  early  culti- 
vation is  of  the  greatest  value  in  breaking  up  the  crust 
that  packs  firmly  around  the  tender  growing  stems  of 
plants  and  which  seriously  interferes  with  their  growth. 
Like  all  surface  cultivation  it  is  also  an  aid  in  the  conserva- 
tion of  moisture  in  the  soil. 

Importance  of  Not  Allowing  Weeds  to  go  to  Seed. 
— A  common  source  of  weed  infection  is  often  found  in  the 
few  weeds  that  are  allowed  to  go  to  seed  toward  the  end  of 
the  growing  season  in  the  maturing  crop  or  after  the  crop 
has  been  gathered.  To  some  persons  it  often  seems  a 


Fig.  9.     Useful  types  of  hand  weeders. 

small  matter  to  allow  a  few  plants  of  pigweed,  purslane, 
tumbleweed,  and  weeds  of  other  kinds  to  go  to  seed  in  the 
garden,  but  absolute  cleanliness  should  be  the  rule  in  this 
particular,  and  it  is  by  far  the  most  economical  in  practice  in 
the  long  run.  It  requires  but  little  labor  and  saves  much  use- 
less expense  if  the  weeds  that  are  going  to  seed  are  destroyed. 
If  the  preventives  for  weeds  here  suggested  are  closely 
followed,  hand  weeding  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  and 
will  often  be  unnecessary  with  any  crop. 

Weed  Seeds  in  the  Manure  for  the  Garden. — While  the 
discussion  of  the  subject  of  manures  for  the  garden  is 
not  the  special  object  of  this  chapter,  yet  some  reference  to 
the  subject  is  quite  necessary  in  considering  the  subject  of 
weed  eradication.  The  people  of  this  section  have  not  yet 
learned  the  great  value  of  barnyard  manure  and  its  proper 


52 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


preparation  for  best  results  in  the  soil.  This  is  a  subject  of 
vast  importance  and  one  that  in  the  future  will  receive  far 
more  thought  than  at  present.  The  manure  applied  to 
the  garden  is  often  coarse  and  contains  many  weed  seeds 
and  is  a  fruitful  source  of  weed  infection.  If  the  manure 
intended  for  the  garden  contains  the  seeds  of  weeds  it 
should  be  piled  up  and  allowed  to  ferment  until  the  whole 
mass  is  thoroughly  rotted,  which  process  will  kill  the  weed 

seeds  in  it.  It  is  seldom  ad- 
visable to  use  fresh  manure 
in  the  garden,  and  it  should 
only  be  applied  in  this  con- 
dition when  free  from  weeds 
and  then  only  for  some  late 
maturing  crops,  in  which 
case  there  will  be  time  for 
it  to  rot  before  the  crops 
need  it. 

Plowing.  —  In  the  West- 
ern states,  where  the  sum- 
mers are  often  very  dry, 
vegetable  land  should  gen- 
erally be  plowed  in  the 
autumn,  so  that  the  subsoil 
may  become  sufficiently 
compacted  by  spring  to 
readily  transmit  the  subsoil 

moisture  to  the  surface.  Such  treatment,  by  forming 
a  dust  blanket,  retards  evaporation  from  the  land  dur- 
ing dry  autumns  and  dry  winters  when  there  is  no  snow 
on  the  ground.  Fall  plowing  also  puts  the  land  in  the  best 
shape  for  the  action  of  the  elements  and  the  development 
of  plant  food,  and  may  be  a  means  of  killing  very  many  cut 


Fig.  10.  Root  system  of  an  onion 
plant  with  earth  washed  off.  The  roots 
penetrated  the  earth  to  a  depth  of  18 
inches. 


GARDEN  TILLAGE  53 

worms,  white  grubs,  and  other  insects  that  winter  over  in 
the  soil.  If  plowing  is  left  until  spring  in  northern  climates 
it  should  be  done  as  early  as  practicable  and  not  as  deep  as 
when  done  in  the  fall.  Deep  spring  plowing  leaves  too 
much  of  the  upper  soil  loose  and  not  sufficiently  compact 
to  enable  the  subsoil  water  to  easily  reach  the  surface  roots ; 
but  where  irrigation  is  practiced,  there  is  not  much  differ- 
ence in  this  respect.  The  soil  for  the  garden  should  ordi- 
narily be  plowed  to  a  depth  of  at  least  eight  inches,  yet  in 
the  case  of  some  light  soils  half  this  depth  may  be  preferable. 

Subsoiling  is  a  term  applied  to  the  loosening  of  the 
land  just  below  where  the  plow  ordinarily  goes.  The 
subsoil  is  not  brought  to  the  surface,  but  a  special  plow  is 
used  which  follows  an  ordinary  plow.  This  has  no  mold 
board,  but  has  a  good  point  and  shoe,  and  these  loosen  the 
subsoil  without  raising  it.  This  process  may  be  hurtful 
or  of  no  value  to  subsoils  already  so  loose  as  to  permit  the 
roots  of  plants  to  push  readily  into  them,  and  should  not 
be  applied  to  them ;  but  for  some  of  the  very  stiff  subsoils  of 
some  sections  it  is  a  great  improvement,  since  it  deepens 
the  tillable  land  so  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  can  push 
more  readily  into  it.  This  loosening  of  the  stiff  subsoil 
also  puts  it  into  just  the  right  condition  for  receiving  and 
holding  water.  It  is  thus  sometimes  a  great  help  in  carry- 
ing plants  over  droughty  periods. 

Subsoiling  gives  best  results  when  performed  in  the 
autumn.  If  done  in  the  spring  and  the  operation  is  fol- 
lowed by  dry  weather,  the  land  is  likely  to  be  left  too  loose 
to  hold  moisture  well  that  year  and  consequently  will 
suffer  from  drought.  It  is  seldom,  even  on  stiff  land,  that 
subsoiling  is  needed  more  than  once  in  four  or  five  years, 
for  after  being  once  loosened  the  roots  of  plants  penetrate 
it  and  keep  it  open.  The  roots  of  our  garden  crops  push 


54  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

deeper  into  the  land  than  is  generally  known;  even  the 
onion,  which  is,  perhaps,  as  shallow  rooted  as  any  garden 
crop  grown,  often  pushes  its  roots  to  a  depth  of  eighteen 
inches  in  good  soil,  and  corn  roots  have  been  followed  to  a 
depth  of  four  feet.  It  is  probable  that  in  good  land  almost 
any  of  our  garden  crops  will  send  their  roots  eighteen  or 
more  inches  deep. 

Ridging  the  Land. — If  the  land  is  liable  to  be  too  wet 
for  planting  in  early  spring,  it  is  sometimes  a  good  practice 
in  plowing  it  to  turn  several  furrows  back  to  back  and  thus 
leave  the  land  in  ridges  over  winter.  If  these  ridges  or 
"lands"  are  made  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  they  may  be 
dragged  and  planted  in  the  spring  without  further  plowing. 
For  some  crops  it  is  often  best  to  open  the  furrows  again  in 
the  spring  and  thus  leave  the  land  level.  This  method  of 
treatment  permits  of  working  the  land  much  earlier  in  the 
spring  than  it  otherwise  could  be  worked  if  plowed  flat.  It 
also  leaves  the  soil  in  very  good  shape  for  the  action  of 
frost  on  its  particles  during  the  winter.  For  early  crops  on 
flat  or  heavy  soils  it  is  a  most  desirable  treatment.  The 
objection  to  it  is  that  if  not  turned  back  in  the  spring  the 
dead  furrows  interfere  with  cultivation;  and  if  the  land  is 
plowed  again  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  left  too  loose.  But 
admitting  these  objections,  even  then  there  are  often  cases 
where  ridging  would  be  very  desirable.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  too,  in  cultivating  the  garden,  that  while  the  soil 
in  it  may  be  too  loose,  it  can  not  be  too  rich  or  too  deep; 
nor  can  the  subsoil,  if  not  of  too  impervious  a  nature,  be 
too  compact,  and  yet  it  must  be  loose  enough  to  permit  of 
the  roots  entering  it  and  the  water  percolating  through  it. 

General  Cultivation  of  Garden  Crops. — The  meth- 
ods to  be  pursued  in  the  general  cultivation  of  garden  crops 
vary  somewhat  according  to  the  soil,  season,  and  crop.  It  is 


GARDEN  TILLAGE  55 

very  important  to  remember,  however,  that  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  work  of  cultivation. 
The  most  important  part  in  many  sections  is  to  so  fit  the 
soil  that  it  may  best  withstand  drought.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  frequent  shallow  cultivation  during  the  period 
of  drought.  The  first  implements  to  use  in  the  care  of 
such  crops  as  are  generally  cultivated  by  hand  are  those 
that  work  the  soil  to  only  a  very  slight  depth  close  to  the 
plants.  Such  implements  may  be  used  just  as  the  seed- 
lings are  breaking  ground. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  have  gained  some  little  strength, 
implements  should  be  used  that  will  go  deeper,  until  a 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches  can  be  easily  worked  without 
endangering  the  safety  of  the  crop  by  covering  the  plants 
with  soil.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  of  our  garden  crops  should 
ever  be  cultivated  more  than  three  inches  deep,  and  it  is 
very  certain  that  many  crops  are  injured  by  cultivating 
deeply  very  close  to  the  plants,  in  which  case  the  roots  are 
cut  off  near  their  upper  ends  and  thus  wholly  destroyed. 


Fig.  11.     A  useful  type  of  horse  hoe. 

Cultivation  in  a  period  of  drought  results  in  forming  a 
mulch  or  blanket  of  dry  earth  on  the  surface  of  the  land, 
which  prevents  the  moisture  from  passing  into  the  atmos- 
phere, and  a  rather  shallow  dust  blanket,  say  three  inches 
deep,  accomplishes  this  purpose.  A  compact  subsoil 


56 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


readily  transmits  the  water  upwards  to  the  surface  soil  in 
the  same  manner  that  a  lamp  wick  carries  the  oil  to  the 
flame.  At  the  surface  the  soil  water  is  prevented  from 
evaporating  by  the  blanket  of  loose  earth,  and  is  thus 
saved  in  the  upper  subsoil  and  lower  and  middle  parts  of 
the  furrow  slice  for  the  roots  of  the  crop.  Loose  surface 
soil  is  a  good  non-conductor  of  water.  During  the  growth 
of  a  crop  the  surface  soil  should  never  be  left  long  with  a 
crust  on  it,  but  should  be  stirred  after  each  rain  or  arti- 
ficial watering. 

Cultivation  to  Develop  Plant  Food. — Nearly  all  virgin 
land  contains  immense  quantities  of  plant  food.     Professor 


Fig.  12.     Illustrating  the  efficiency  ot  the  fine-tooth  cultivator. 

Snyder  has  shown  that  our  average  wheat-producing  soils 
contain  enough  nitrogen  to  raise  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  successive  crops  of  wheat.  But  only  a  very  little  of 
this  material  is  ever  at  one  time  in  a  condition  in  which 


GARDEN  TILLAGE 


57 


the  plant  can  take  it  up;  nearly  all  of  it  is  insoluble.  By 
chemical  action  and  fermentation  in  the  soil,  plant  food  is 
set  free.  This  is  increased  and  made  more  complete  by 
admitting  air  into  the  soil.  Hence  the  reason  for  deep 
plowing  in  the  fall,  which  allows  the  air  and  water  to  enter 
and  thus  develop  plant  food.  This,  also,  is  an  important 
fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  cultivating  land.  Where  the 
soil  can  be  kept  moist  through  the  summer,  deep  spring 
plowing  is  an  advantage  in  opening  the  soil  to  the  air;  but 
on  account  of  the  liability  to  injury  from  droughts  to  soils 
thus  worked,  the  practice  is  generally  a  poor  one  for  sections 
having  a  limited  rainfall. 

GARDEN  IMPLEMENTS 

Implements  such  as  plows,  harrows,  etc.,  used  in  pre- 
paring land  for  ordinary  farm  crops,  are  also  used  in 
fitting  land  for  garden  crops.  In  addition,  however, 
there  are  a  number  of  tools  and  implements  which  are  not 
commonly  used  in  grow- 
ing the  farm  crops. 
These  may  be  roughly 
classed  as  follows: — 

Horse  hoes  and 
horse  cultivators  are 
much  alike  in  general 
construction,  but  each 

is      adapted      tO      Special      Fig.  13.     A  combined  harrow  and  cultivator. 

purposes   and  both  are 

very  desirable.     The  horse  hoes  are  for  use  when  the  land  is 

very  hard  and  weedy;  they  may  also  be  used  for  ridging 

the  land  and  drawing    the   earth  from,  or  harrowing  it 

towards,  the  plants.     For  this  purpose  they  have  various 

attachments. 


58 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


The  cultivators  are  especially  for  the  purpose  of  stirring 
the  surface  soil  and  forming  a  dust  blanket ;  they  do  not  re- 
move weeds  that  are  well  established.  They  throw  very  lit- 
tle soil  sideways,  and  on  this  account  may  be  used  for  culti- 
vating very  close  to  small  plants.  Among  the  best  of  these  are 
those  known  under  the  names  of  Planet  Jr.  and  Iron  Age. 
Hand  Cultivators. — There  are  many  good  forms  of 
hand  cultivators  on  the  market,  and  they  are  a  necessity 
in  every  garden  containing  over  a  quarter  of  an  acre. 
They  are  made  so  as  to  be  adjusted  to  various  widths  between 

the  rows,  and  kinds 
called  "straddle  cultiva- 
tors" are  made  so  as  to 
cut  on  two  sides  of  a 
row  of  plants  at  one 
time  which  is  often  quite 
an  advantage.  They 
also  have  various  attach- 
ments for  special  pur- 
poses. Many  good  hand 
cultivators  are  now  on 
the  market.  Among  those  most  often  used  are  several 
kinds  manufactured  by  the  S.  L.  Allen  and  the  Bate- 
man  companies. 

Seed  Drills. — Drills  are  necessary  in  every  garden. 
There  are  many  good  kinds  offered  by  dealers.  Among 
the  best  are  the  New  Model  drill,  Planet  Jr.  Hill-Dropping 
drill,  Matthews  drill,  and  the  Columbia. 

Combined  Seed  Drills  and  Cultivators. — These  are 
very  economical  and  useful  implements  for  small  gardens; 
for  a  large  garden  it  is  important  to  have  the  seed  drill  and 
the  cultivator  separate,  but  in  small  gardens  combined 
machines  can  be  used  to  good  advantage,  and  thereby 


Fig    14.     A  homemade  hand  cultivator. 


GARDEN  TILLAGE 


59 


Fig.   15.     At  work  with  the  wheel  hoe. 

make  a  saving  of  first  cost.  Among  the  best  of  these  are 
the  combination  drill  and  cultivator  made  by  the  Ames 
Plow  Co.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  the  Planet  Jr.  combined 
drill  and  cultivator. 

Marker. — The   illustration   shows   a   good   form   of   a 


Fig.   16.     A  simple  garden  marker. 


marker  for  the  garden.     It  is  easily  made  by  any  one  who  is 
handy  with  tools,  and  is  used  for  marking  out  rows. 

Dibbles  are  generally  made  from  a  crooked  stick  shod 


60 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


with  iron,  and  are  very  useful  in  transplanting  (Fig.  17). 

A  better  form,  made  of  steel,  is  shown. 

Scuffle  Attachments  for 
Hand  Garden  Cultivators. — 
Fig.  18  shows  two  sets  of  im- 
plements designed  to  be  at- 
tached to  the  ordinary  wheel 
cultivators  which  will  work 
close  up  to  the  young  plants  so 
as  to  cut  off  the  weeds  just 
under  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
and  will  be  found  very  useful 
in  many  places.  They  should 
be  made  out  of  tool  steel,  and 
any  good  blacksmith  can  make 
them.  The  length  of  blades 
may  be  made  to  suit  the  work. 

a  t> 

Fig.  17.     Dibbles;  a,  improved  flat  The    SCUffle    hOC     shown    in 

Fig.  18,  is  an  excellent  old- 
fashioned  implement  for  shallow  cultivation,  such  as  is 
needed  in  early  spring  in  the  garden.  Besides  it  is  very 
cheap  and  simple  and  can  be  made  by  any  handy  black- 


Fig.  18.     On  the  left,  homemade  attachments  for  garden   cultivator;  on 
the  right,  a  scuffle  hoe. 

smith.     It  cannot  be  recommended  to  take  place  of  the 
improved  wheel  hoes  for  large  gardens,  but  in  small  gardens 


GARDEN  TILLAGE  01 

it  may  be  used  for  the  work  of  shallow  cultivation  to  good 
advantage.  It  does  not  work  the  soil  deep  enough  for 
the  best  summer  cultivation. 

Plank  Drag  or  Smoothing  Board. — The  form  of  this  is 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  19.  It  is  used  for  crushing  lumpy 
soil  and  smoothing  off  and  leveling  the  land  preparatory 
to  seed  sowing  or  planting,  and  will  be  found  very  useful. 
It  can  be  made  by  any  one.  The  planks  are  two  by  ten 


Fig.  19.     Plank  drag  for  smoothing  the  surface  of  land. 

inches  on  the  ends  and  eight  feet  long,  lapped  two  inches 
and  nailed.  These  are  strengthened  by  two  six-inch  cleats 
securely  bolted  on.  It  is  drawn  by  a  chain  fastened  at  the 
front  corners. 

Potato  Diggers. — Of  the  cheapest  forms  of  potato 
diggers,  probably  the  Hallock  Improved  is  the  most  perfect. 
It  does  very  good  work,  and  where  not  over  five  acres  of 
potatoes  are  to  be  dug  it  is  probably  all  that  is  needed. 
Where  the  potato  is  raised  on  a  large  scale,  however,  it  is 
generally  desirable  to  use  an  elevating  digger.  Of  these 
the  Hoover  and  the  Dowden  are  probably  the  best  to  be 
had.  They  both  work  on  the  same  principle. 

Spray  Pumps. — Almost  every  farmer  and  gardener 
needs  a  good  spray  pump  for  applying  Paris  green  to  potatoes 
and  vines  and  for  spraying  trees,  vines,  etc.,  with  fungicides 
or  insecticides.  For  this  purpose  some  form  of  the  knap- 
sack spray  pump  is  most  desirable  where  the  work  to  be 
done  is  not  very  extensive.  For  applying  these  substances 


62  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

on  a  large  scale,  some  special  apparatus  is  needed,  and 
there  are  many  kinds  offered  by  manufacturers. 

In  buying  machinery  it  is  well  to  regard  with  suspicion 
those  that  are  very  complicated,  as  the  simplest  is  generally 
the  most  durable  in  the  end. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  three  things  are  accomplished  by  cultivation? 

2.  Why  is  it  important  that  weeds  should  be  prevented  from 
growing  in  the  garden?     What  are  the  best  means  of  eradication? 

3.  What  are   the   advantages   and   disadvantages   of   fall   and 
spring  plowing? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  sub-soil  plowing,  and  when  does  it  give 
best  results? 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  ridging  the  land,  and  when  is  it  prac- 
ticable? 

6.  How  does  cultivation  develop  plant  food? 

7.  What  tools  and  machines  are  necessary  for  successful  garden- 
ing, and  for  what  purpose  is  each  one  used? 


CHAPTER  IV 
SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING 

Conditions  Favoring  Germination. — For  the  successful 
germination  of  seed  in  the  soil  a  reasonable  amount  of 
heat,  moisture,  and  air  is  necessary.  To  secure  these 
conditions  in  practice,  the  seed  should  be  imbedded  in 
mellow  soil,  and  this  packed  around  it  just  firm  enough  to 
bring  it  into  actual  contact  and  make  sure  capillary  action 
in  the  soil.  If  the  soil  is  left  loose  over  and  around  the 
seed  capillary  action  can  not  take  place  and  the  seed  is  apt  to 
dry  out  unless  the  season  is  very  wet;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
soil  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  compact  over  the 
seed,  or  the  young  seedling  will  not  be  able  to  push  through 
it.  No  matter  how  carefully  the  sowing  may  have  been 
done,  the  successful  germination  of  the  seed  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  condition  of  the  ground.  Unless  the 
seed  is  carefully  and  properly  placed  and  covered,  the  crop 
cannot  get  a  good  start,  no  matter  how  well  the  land  has 
been  prepared  or  how  good  the  seed  is. 

Seed  will  not  sprout  in  the  absence  of  air,  and  on  this 
account  when  deeply  buried  some  weed  seeds  may  retain 
their  germinating  power  for  many  years.  Cases  are  on 
record  of  yellow  mustard  seeds  germinating  after  remaining 
in  the  land  for  eighteen  years.  Very  frequently,  on  plow- 
ing land  that  has  not  been  stirred  for  a  long  time,  the  weeds 
of  certain  kinds  are  very  abundant,  showing  that  they 
must  have  been  in  the  soil  a  long  time,  but  could  not 
germinate  away  from  the  air. 

Depth  to  Plant. — Most  of  the  common,  smaller  garden 
seeds  are  planted  one  inch  deep;  celery  and  some  other 


G4  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

fine  seeds  can  not  be  planted  nearly  as  deep.  Peas  and 
corn  are  generally  planted  from  two  to  three  inches  deep. 
Peas,  however,  are  sometimes  planted  as  deep  as  six  inches. 

Always  sow  in  freshly  stirred  ground,  as  the  seed  is  far 
more  likely  to  get  a  good  start  in  it  than  in  soil  that  has 
lain  untilled  long  enough  to  become  crusty  and  lumpy. 
Then  if  the  seeds  are  planted  immediately  after  cultiva- 
tion has  been  given  and  while  the  soil  is  still  moist,  the 
weeds  will  hardly  get  the  start  of  the  crop  planted  if 
reasonable  care  is  used.  In  fact,  following  this  rule  will 
generally  insure  success  as  long  as  there  is  life  in  the  seed 
and  moisture  in  the  soil.  Again,  it  is  preferable  to  sow  seeds 
immediately  after  a  rain  rather  than  just  before  it  comes, 
since  in  the  case  of  the  finer  seeds  the  crust  which  forms 
immediately  after  a  rain  may  be  so  compact  that  the  young 
seedlings  cannot  push  through. 

When  a  crust  thus  forms  over  seeds  it  is  sometimes  a 
good  plan  to  go  over  the  land  before  the  crust  is  very 
compact  and  break  it  up  with  rakes,  but  this  should  be 
done  in  a  most  careful  manner  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  seeds. 
If  a  crust  forms  over  fine  seeds,  such  as  celery,  and  tobacco, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  the  crust  moist  until  the  seeds 
have  pushed  through  it.  Soil  that  is  much  dried  out  in 
midsummer  is  often  quite  an  obstacle  to  the  ready  germi- 
nation of  seed  sown  at  that  time;  but  if  the  seed  is  sown 
shortly  after  the  ground  is  plowed  and  somewhat  deeper 
than  it  is  generally  sown  in  the  early  spring,  and  care  is 
taken  to  firm  the  earth  very  carefully  immediately  after 
sowing,  the  seed  will  generally  come  up  very  quickly  at 
this  season.  But  the  land  should  not  be  worked  for  seed 
sowing  or  for  any  other  purpose  when  very  wet  and  sticky, 
as  seeds  can  not  be  properly  planted  in  soil  in  such  condi- 
tion. 


SEED  SOWING  65 

The  time  of  sowing  any  particular  seed  varies  according 
to  the  time  we  want  to  use  the  vegetable,  weather  conditions, 
time  to  market  in  order  to  get  best  price  for  products, 
and  other  circumstances.  The  time  of  sowing  or  planting 
is  given  further  attention  in  the  separate  discussion  of  the 
vegetables.  Some  seeds  such  as  spinach,  onion,  lettuce, 
and  radish,  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked;  while  the  seed  of  such  tropical  plants  as  corn, 
cucumber,  and  squash  should  not  be  sown  until  the  ground 
is  well  warmed.  The  early-sown,  hardier  seeds  are  often 
frozen  up  in  the  ground  and,  perhaps,  covered  with  snow 
without  injury;  in  fact,  a  covering  of  snow  seems  beneficial 
to  the  growth  of  hardy  seeds,  because  land  is  usually  in 
better  shape  for  sowing  seed  in  after  a  rain  than  before. 

Sowing  in  Stiff  Clay  Soils. — It  is  comparatively  easy 
to  make  seeds  germinate  in  sand,  sandy  loam,  muck,  or 
soil  rich  in  humus,  provided  they  contain  a  reasonable 
amount  of  moisture;  but  in  stiff  clay  soils  this  is  often  quite 
a  different  matter,  as  the  land  becomes  crusted  over  so 
completely  as  to  prevent  the  smaller  seedlings  from  push- 
ing through.  For  such  land  it  is  desirable  to  use  rather 
more  seed  than  would  be  needed  in  lighter  soils,  for  the  rea- 
son that  while  a  few  plants  could  not  push  up  the  crusted 
surface  yet  many  can  do  so;  and  while  thick  seeding  in- 
creases the  total  cost  of  seed,  yet  the  certainty  of  thus  secur- 
ing a  full  stand  is  so  great  an  advantage  as  to  well  repay  this 
additional  outlay,  and  the  expense  for  thinning,  if  it  has  to  be 
done  at  all,  is  about  the  same  for  thick  as  for  thin  seeding. 
It  is  also  well  to  sow  in  a  few  radish,  or  other  quick  growing 
seed,  in  order  to  mark  the  rows  so  that  cultivation  may 
commence  early.  The  radish  may  be  pulled  as  soon  as 
large  enough. 


66  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Sowing  Seed  With  Machine. — When  the  soil  is  prepared 
for  best  work  with  a  garden  drill,  it  is  generally  in  the  best 
condition  for  the  germination  of  seeds.  The  whole  surface 
should  be  fine,  mellow,  and  even.  There  are  only  one  or 
two  garden  seeds  that  cannot  readily  be  sown  with  any  of 
the  half  dozen  good  garden  drills  that  are  on  the  market. 


Fig.  20.     The  Planet  Jr.  type  of  combined  drill. 

Garden  drills  when  properly  used  will  sow  and  cover  seed 
much  more  uniformly  than  it  can  possibly  be  sown  and  cover- 
ed by  hand,  and  they  are  a  necessity  in  any  well-managed 
garden  of  over  a  quarter  of  an  acre. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  straight  rows 
in  the  garden,  for  they  are  more  economical  of  space  than 
crooked  rows  and  are  more  perfectly  cultivated  with  the 
wheel  hoes  and  cultivator;  besides,  crooked  rows  are 
unsightly  and  slovenly.  It  is  generally  desirable  in  using 
a  garden  drill  to  mark  off  the  first  row  with  a  line  to  get  it 
straight.  If  this  is  done  to  begin  with  the  subsequent 
rows  may  be  kept  parallel  by  using  the  marker  always 
found  on  such  machines,  providing  constant  care  is  used. 
Some  growers  prefer  to  mark  out  all  the  rows  with  a  marker 
and  then  run  the  seed  sower  in  the  marks,  but  for  a  careful 
workman  this  is  useless  labor. 

Seed  drills  are  made  with  a  point  to  open  furrows,  a 
coverer  for  filling  in  after  the  drill,  a  wheel  for  compacting 


SEED  SOWING 


67 


the  soil  on  the  seed,  and  a  marker  for  the  next  row.  To 
use  a  garden  seed  drill  most  successfully  requires  good 
judgment,  but  a  little  careful  experimenting  will  soon 
enable  any  one  accustomed  to  tools  to  handle  these  most  use- 
ful implements  to  good  advantage.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable 
to  sow  seed  when  the  ground  is  so  wet  that  it  is  not  safe  to 
firm  the  soil  over  it.  When  such  is  the  case  the  rear  wheel 
is  removed  in  sowing.  In  other  cases  when  it  is  desirable 
to  firm  the  soil  more  compactly,  the  press  wheel  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose  by  going  over  the  rows  a  second 
time.  It  is  a  good  plan 
in  doing  this  to  remove 
the  drill  point  or  else  tip 
the  machine  until  the 
point  is  off  the  ground. 
In  the  case  of  a  few 
seeds  that  are  rather  de'- 
icate  when  germinating, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  sow 
the  rows  a  second  time 
with  the  seed  drill  and 
thus  mix  the  seed  up  with  the  soil.  This  method  puts  in 
a  large  amount  of  seed,  which  is  sown  at  various  depths, 
so  that  some  is  sure  to  grow. 

Sowing  Seed  by  Hand. — When  only  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  seed  is  to  be  sown,  it  is  often  best  to  sow  it  by  hand. 
When  this  is  the  plan  the  rows  are  made  by  the  garden 
marker  and  the  seed  distributed  in  them  evenly  by  hand. 
The  rows  are  then  covered  by  the  soil  being  drawn  into 
them  with  a  rake  and  are  firmed  by  passing  over  the  seed 
with  the  feet.  If  the  soil  is  dry  it  cannot  be  made  too  firm; 
if  moist,  care  must  be  used  to  prevent  packing  it  too  hard. 
In  the  case  of  very  fine  seed  sown  in  dry  weather,  many 


Fig.  21.     The  Columbia  drill. 


68  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

devices  are  used  to  bring  about  germination,  such  as 
watering,  shading  the  soil  with  boards,  covering  the  earth 
with  cloths,  and  the  like. 

Shading  the  Seed  Bed. — It  is  sometimes  a  good  plan 
to  shade  a  seed  bed  for  a  few  days  after  the  seed  is  sown. 
This  is  desirable  with  celery,  petunia,  tobacco,  or  other  fine 
seed,  since  seed  of  this  sort  must  be  covered  but  slightly 
with  soil  on  account  of  their  small  size.  Lath  screens, 
burlap,  and  cheesecloth  make  good  screens.  Remove 
these  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  well  germinated.  Where  flats 
are  used  they  are  often  covered  with  glass  to  prevent 
drying  out.  These  are  usually  shaded  -with  paper  during 
the  brightest  part  of  the  day.  One  good  watering  of  a 
seed  bed  thus  protected  is  often  sufficient  to  carry  the  seed 
through  germination. 

Using  the  Feet  for  Firming  the  Soil  Around  the  Seeds.— 
Many  seeds  are  lost  from  the  failure  to  properly  firm  the 
soil  over  those  sown  during  dry  weather.  Many  devices 
have  been  suggested  and  used  for  securing  this  desirable 
condition,  but  for  general  garden  purposes  no  method  or 
implement  ever  used  can  vie  with  the  proper  use  of  the  feet 
for  this  purpose.  While  this  matter  is  referred  to  elsewhere, 
it  is  put  under  this  special  head  to  call  attention  to  this 
useful  fact. 

Peter  Henderson  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the 
importance  of  this  method,  and  describes  it  as  follows: 
"After  plowing,  harrowing,  and  leveling  the  land  smooth, 
lines  are  drawn  by  the  'markers,'  which  make  furrows 
about  two  inches  deep  and  a  foot  apart.  After  the  man 
who  sows  the  seed  follows  another  who,  with  the  ball  of 
his  right  foot,  presses  down  his  full  weight  on  every  inch 
of  soil  where  the  seed  has  been  sown;  the  rows  are  then 
slightly  leveled  longitudinally  with  the  rake  a  light  roller 


SEED  SOWING  69 

is  passed  over  them,  and  the  work  is  done."  Those  who 
have  practiced  this  method  know  it  gives  most  excellent 
results.  In  my  own  practice,  in  sowing  seed  in  dry  weather, 
even  with  a  seed  drill  that  has  a  wheel  for  firming  the  soil, 
I  have  frequently,  and  to  advantage,  walked  the  rows  with 
the  heel  of  one  foot  close  to  and  in  front  of  the  toe  of  the 
other,  pressing  down  on  the  row. 

Thinning. — It  is  generally  best  to  sow  the  seed  of  most 
garden  vegetables  much  more  thickly  than  the  plants 
should  stand  when  mature.  This  is  done  to  make  sure  of  hav- 
ing enough  plants  to  stock  the  land,  and  it  is  a  good  practice. 
It  is  important,  also,  to  let  every  young  plant  in  the  garden 
have  room  enough  for  perfect  development,  and  this  can 
only  be  secured,  where  thick  seeding  is  practiced,  by  thin- 
ning out.  It  is  a  very  general  fault  of  beginners  in  garden- 
ing that  they  try  to  grow  too  many  plants  on  their.land.  This 
is  a  common  mistake  and  is  no  better  in  result  than  permit- 
ting weeds  to  grow.  Every  plant  in  excess  of  what  can 
properly  mature  on  the  land  is  in  its  effect  a  weed  and  should 
be  treated  as  such. 

In  the  home  garden,  when  the  thinnings  are  valuable, 
as  in  the  case  of  beets,  lettuce,  etc.,  the  work  of  thinning  need 
not  be  done  all  at  once  but  as  the  plants  need  room.  In  the 
market  garden  it  is  best  to  thin  out  the  full  distance  at  one 
time.  Do  not  allow  the  seedlings  to  get  drawn  and  spindling 
before  thinning,  but  do  it  while  they  are  young  and  before 
they  crowd  one  another.  The  proper  distances  between 
plants  seem  very  large  when  the  plants  are  small,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  later  on  anything  less  than  the 
proper  distance  injures  the  crop.  One  must  have  deter- 
mination enough  to  throw  away  many  nice  plants  in 
order  to  make  room  for  those  that  are  to  mature.  It  is 
better  to  give  too  much  than  too  little  room  to  plants. 


70 


VEGETABLE  GARDEN  IN  a 


Protection  to  newly  planted  seeds  against  insects  and 
birds  may  often  be  given  by  slightly  moistening  them  and 
then  stirring  in  red  lead  until  all  the  seeds  are  thoroughly 
coated.  The  seed  should  be  dried  before  sowing. 

Crows  and  gophers  may  be  kept  from  eating  corn  by 
coating  it  with  coal  tar,  as  follows:  Wet  the  corn  with 
hot  water  and  drain  off  all  surplus.  Spread  it  out 
about  four  inches  deep  on  the  floor  of  a  warm  room  and 
sprinkle  it  with  hot  coal  tar,  using  about  a  tablespoonful 
to  a  half  bushel  of  corn,  and  stir  thoroughly  until  every 
kernel  has  a  thin  coat  of  tar  on  it.  Then  dry  the  corn  by 
coating  it  with  dry  ground  plaster  or  other  fine  absorbent. 
This  treatment  does  not  seem  to  hinder  germination. 

TRANSPLANTING 

Transplanting. — Theoretically  transplanting  is  harm- 
ful to  plants,  in  that  it  stops  their  growth  and  sets  them 
back.  It  is  performed  with  more  or  less  difficulty  on  ac- 
count of  periods  of  drought  that  may  occur  at  the  time 


Fig.  22.  A  box  of  young  lettuce  plants  after  being  transplanted  from 
the  seed-box.  These  plants  may  be  moved  to  the  open  ground  or  to  hotbeds 
or  cold  frames  as  soon  as  they  crowd  one  another.  This  is  a  convenient  way 
to  grow  plants  in  dwelling  houses  and  in  front  of  windows.  This  style  of  box 
is  often  referred  to  as  a  "flat." 


TRANSPLANTING 


71 


certain  plants  should  be  transplanted.  It  is  practically 
a  necessary  operation  in  every  garden  and  florist  establish- 
ment, for  the  following  reasons:  (1)  It  is  easier  to  take 
care  of  a  large  number  of  small  plants  and  protect  them 
from  disease,  insects,  weeds,  and  drought  if  they  are  located 
on  a  small  area  than  if  scattered  over  the  field.  (2)  Cer- 
tain crops,  such  as  cabbage,  cauliflower,  tomatoes,  etc., 
may  be  started  in  a  small  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  cold 


Fig.  23.     A  device  for  transplanting   lettuce  and   a  seed-bed    firmer,   in   the 
foreground;  hotbeds  in  the  background. 

frame  much  earlier  than  they  possibly  could  be  in  the 
open  ground.  (3)  Better  use  of  land  may  be  made. 
Plants  started  in  a  frame  or  seed  bed  may  follow  a  crop 
that  has  been  sown  in  the  open ;  as,  for  example,  late  celery 
may  take  the  place  of  radishes  or  early  peas.  (4)  Some 
plants,  such  as  celery,  form  a  fine  fibrous  root  system  if 
transplanted  once  or  twice  before  final  planting  in  the  field. 
This  enables  them  to  become  established  more  quickly  in 


72 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


the  field  and  to  make  a  more  rapid  growth.     (5)     Trans- 
planting is  said  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  some  plants. 

Some  plants  will  stand  transplanting  much  better 
than  others.  Melons,  cucumbers,  corn,  and  squash  are 
harder  to  handle  than  cabbage,  because  they  do  not  have 
as  fibrous  root  systems.  They  should  be  handled  with  a 
good  ball  of  earth  and  preferably  be  grown  in  pots  or  on 


Fig.  24.  Showing  methods  of  setting  cabbage  plants;  /,  with  long 
stem  set  deeply;  2,  with  top  of  stem  twisted  of?  before  planting;  J, 
wrapped  in  Manilla  paper  to  protect  from  cutworms. 

sods,  so  as  to  disturb  the  root  as  little  as  possible.  As  a 
rule,  transplanting  is  more  easily  performed  in  humid 
districts  than  in  the  drier  sections  of  the  West  and  Middle 
West. 

Success  in  transplanting  is  dependent  on  a  variety  of 
conditions.     In  moist  weather  the  setting  of  plants  in  the 


TRANSPLANTING 


73 


open  ground  is  a  very  simple  operation  and  any  one  can 
succeed  with  it  without  much  effort,  but  during  dry  weather 
the  gardener's  skill  is  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  move  plants 
successfully.  One  of  the  most  important  elements  for 
success  in  transplanting  is  a  supply  of  first-class  stocky 
plants  that  have  not  been  crowded  in  the  seed  bed.  Such 
plants  make  success  reasonably  certain.  A  most  important 
requirement  in  any  case  is  that  the  soil  be  moist  and  not  wet 
and  sticky.  If  it  is  very  dry  it  must  be  watered  or  failure 
will  be  a  sure  result. 

Shortening  the  Tops  .of  Plants.  —  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
shorten  the  tops  of  cabbage,  celery,  cauliflower,  and  similar 
plants  when  they  are  to  be  moved.  This  may  be  done  by 
twisting  or  cutting  off  a 
third  or  even  one-half  of 
the  tops.  If  the  plants 
have  excessively  long 
roots  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
shorten  them  enough  to 
permit  of  their  being 
handled  easily. 

The  digging  of  plants 
should  be  done  carefully 
and  every  precaution 
taken  to  get  good  roots. 


The  bed  should  be  thor-      Fig  25    Tomato  plantg  grown  in  a  com. 

OUehlv  Wet  before  dieting    partment    box    to     facilitate     transplanting. 

&      J  5    Such  boxes  can  be  bought  at  a  very  low  price, 

SO     that     the     Small    rOOtS    and  are  very  convenient  aids  in  transplant- 

ing many  kinds  of  plants.      They  are  espec- 

Will  not  be  broken  in  SCO-    ially  desirable   when  plants  are   to    be   sold 
*~      at  retail. 

arating    the    plants.      If 

possible,  take  a  good  ball  of  earth  about  the  roots  of  the 
plant.  This  may  be  pressed  tightly  to  the  roots  and  thus 
facilitate  handling.  The  best  time  of  day  for  trans- 


74  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

planting  is  generally  after  4  P.  M.,  for  after  that  time  the 
moisture  in  the  air  increases  rapidly  and  the  plants  have 
the  cool  night  air  in  which  to  recover  before  being 
subjected  to  the  intense  rays  of  the  sun.  Of  course  if  the 
weather  is  cloudy  the  plants  may  be  set  out  at  any  time  of 
the  day.  If  a  little  shade  can  be  provided  for  the  newly 
set  plants  so  much  the  better.  This  may  consist  of  boxes, 
boards  slightly  raised  from  the  ground,  shingles,  inverted 
flower  pots,  paper  bags,  a  handful  of  green  grass,  strawberry 
boxes,  or  similar  material  that  will  protect  the  plants  from 
the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun. 

Firming  the  soil  about  the  roots  is  fully  as  important  as 
firming  the-  soil  over  the  seeds,  and  for  the  same  reasons. 


Fig.  26.     Transplanting  lettuce  in  the  greenhouse — covering. 

It  should  be  so  firmly  and  closely  packed  that  the  plants 
cannot  be  pulled  up  without  considerable  effort.  The  drier 
the  soil  the  greater  the  necessity  for  packing  it  firmly  about 
the  roots.  ,  If  the  soil  is  wet  and  inclined  to  pack  hard  it 
should  receive  only  moderate  pressure  until  somewhat 
dried  out.  The  firming  is  generally  done  by  pressing 
with  a  dibble  or  the  ball  of  the  foot  against  the  soil  on  one 
side  of  the  roots  of  the  plant. 


TRANSPLANTING  75 

When  the  transplanting  is  finished  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
give  the  plants  a  good  hoeing  at  once,  drawing  a  little 
loose,  dry  soil  around  them  to  act  as  mulch  and  prevent 
evaporation.  The  holes  for  the  plants  are  generally  made 
with  a  dibble,  shown  in  Fig.  17.  A  spade  is  often  used  for 
this  purpose,  and  such  plants  as  small  onions  are  most  con- 
veniently set  in  small  furrows  made  with  a  wheel  hoe.  In 
every  case,  however,  the  plants  should  be  set  a  little 


Fig.  27.     Transplanting  lettuce — firming  the  soil. 

deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  seed  bed,  and  in  the  case  of 
spindling  tomato,  cabbage,  and  some  other  plants  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  bend  the  stems  and  bury  a  large  part  of  them 
in  the  soil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

Hardening  off  the  Plants. — Hardening  off  is  a  term  used 
to  denote  the  checking  of  the  growth  of  plants  in  such  a 
way  as  to  cause  their  tissues  to  become  firm  and  hard.  It 
is  very  important  to  have  the  plants  accustomed  to  cold 
weather  when  they  are  transplanted  to  the  open  ground,  or 
they  may  be  killed  by  a  frost  that  otherwise  would  do  them 
no  harm.  This  is  true  of  the  cauliflower,  celery,  and  of 
course  of  all  our  native  frost-tender  trees  and  many  other 


76 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


plants.  When  cabbage  plants  are  properly  hardened 
they  take  on  a  dull  blue  color  that  at  once  indicates  their 
condition  to  one  acquainted  with  their  peculiarities.  This 
hardening  off  cf  the  plants  is  accomplished  by  gradually 
subjecting  them  to  a  lower  temperature  than  that  in  which 
they  grow  freely  or  by  drying  them  a  little,  thus,  finally, 
nearly  checking  their  growth.  The 
result  is  a  sort  of  ripening  up  of  the 
tissues  of  the  plants,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, they  will  stand  great  hardship. 
Substitutes  for  Flower  Pots. — To- 
mato cans  are  very  convenient  sub- 
stitutes for  flowerpots  when  plants 
are  grown  for 
transplanting. 
The  cover  on  the 
end  opaned  may 
be  melted  off  and 
half-inch  hole 
made  in  the  bot- 
tom for  drain- 
age. Another 
way  to  use  them 
is  to  melt  all  the 
joints  and  use 

tllf    hnHv   nf    thp 

can  by  tying  it  together  with  a  piece  of  wire.  Thus 
prepared  the  tins  may  be  set  in  the  hotbed  or  cold  frame 
and  filled  with  earth  into  which  the  seed  or  the  plants 
may  be  placed.  When  the  time  comes  for  planting  into 
the  open  ground  the  tins  with  the  plants  in  them  may  be 
lifted  with  a  trowel  and  placed  in  boxes,  to  be  carried  to  the 
field  where  the  plants  are  easily  placed  in  the  ground.  The 


Fig.  28.  Transplanting  aided  by  the  Balbridge 
transplanter,  which  takes  up  a  ball  of  earth  with  each 
plant.  This  shows  a  box  of  strawberry  plants  just 
taken  up  and  ready  for  planting  out.  In  planting  out, 
the  holes  are  made  with  the  same  implement.  There  are 
several  other  similar  implements  for  the  same  purpose. 


TRANSPLANTING 


77 


tins  may  also  be  set  around  the  plants  on  top  of  the  ground 
to  protect  them  from  the  sun  and  wind.  (See  Fig.  29.) 
Paper  pots  are  now  quite  cheaply  procured  or  may  easily 
be  made  at  home.  Berry  boxes  and  even  sods  are  often  used 
to  advantage. 


Fig.  29.  Illustrating  the  use  of  tomato  cans  as  an  aid  in  transplant- 
ing. A  box  of  plants  in  the  cans  ready  for  removal  to  the  field  and  one  can 
opened,  showing  the  ball  of  roots.  The  cans  are  held  together  by  wire 
twisted  around  them. 

Machine  Transplanting. — Machines  are  now  in  use  that 
do  the  work  of  transplanting  cabbage,  cauliflower,  tomatoes, 
and  even  strawberries  better  than  they  can  be  set  by  hand 
and  somewhat  cheaper.  The  better  makes  are  simply  con- 
structed and  easy  to  handle.  They  require  a  good  team 
and  a  careful  driver  and  two  men  to  feed  the  plants.  The 
machine  opens  a  furrow,  sets  the  plant,  and  at  the  same 


78 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


„ 

CO' 

III 

•          / 

LU 

^ 

v  I  " 

\ 

» 

Of      *  <•  x 

1 

X 
U 

. 

c 

w 

III 

u 

•       «       * 

1  11. 

a 

CO 

»                    , 

c 

1         1         1 

tti 

CO            r 

5    g! 

A 

c 

z 

u 
h 

<3 

j 

'       ".      ' 

CO 

^ 

i   o:  ? 

§ 

cc 

•     a:     • 

LU 

~ 

+                        UJ 

c 

c 

UJ 

*% 

(/? 

CD       '     C 

; 

c 

•j 

u 

1      50      , 

^ 

UJ       / 

L 

J 

» 

C/5 

*              co      ^ 

Q 

5 

- 

'       U       ' 

CO 

a 

g 

C 

5 

X 

u 

^ 

J- 

1 

4 

C 

c 

5 

> 

D 

0 

U 

J 

-       -       - 

u 

Lvl 
CO 

III 

a 
1 

*    uj   .  to 

h 

c 

3  : 

"     -to' 

1 

Uc/5 
COO. 
l-~ 

§ 

h 

13 

<ri     cl      '      S 

Ul      UJ               C± 

£ 

CQ 
$ 

; 

-  Lu  - 
.«.*. 

-2-      - 

0 

u 
t 

\ 

i 

1 

I 

CO 

fe 
a 

03 

?  5  :  5 

S 

"      "S" 

c 
< 

J 

S 

, 

«     »o  « 

_ 

tM 

a 

+        *    * 

UJ 

< 

S 

P^ 

-    1 

i 

"£x2' 

jji 

d 

cJ 

*               t/5 
h- 
*                Z 

-c 

44+- 

i 

co 

E 

*            or     |    : 

i 

> 

s 

fc« 

O      u   « 

5 

t/ 

D 

S 

«          4      .   +• 

co 

-   5; 

CQ  u 

5 

Ll 

J 

> 

UJ 
*          *|  + 

Z 

Q. 

Z 

*                           .     «J 

r 

J- 

•y 

U 

Q^ 

< 

; 

^ 

Q.       3) 

PQ 

^ 

^      ' 

: 

Lj 

u    o* 

f™7 

• 

c 

) 

4-  V—  +•  W  + 

,        i 

ft 

z 

T                            • 

+  £<-         4 

(0 

*                  ,        - 

^                  -f                   -f 

J 

.£:.£     *•*•£ 

-S 

J 

41 

J 

J 

e 

f 

£ 

£ 

.9    ./     ./.    .fi 

c 

c 

^^ 

TRANSPLANTING  79 

time  waters  the  roots  and  firms  the  soil.     Plants  may  be 
set  as  close  as  fifteen  inches. 


Fig.  31.     The  Bemis  machine  transplanter. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  three  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  successful  ger- 
mination of  seeds? 

2.  How  deep  should  garden  seed  be  planted,  and  what  should 
be  the  condition  of  the  soil? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  of  sowing  seed  with  seed  drills? 

4.  How  should  seed  be  cared  for  after  sowing? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  thinning?     Transplanting? 

6.  What  care  should  be  taken  of  plants  after  transplanting? 

7.  How  are  plants  hardened  off? 


CHAPTER  V 

SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING.     DEVELOPMENT  OF 
VARIETIES 

Good  pedigrees  in  seeds  are  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  order  to  grow  good  crops.  No  other  single  factor  that 
enters  into  the  production  of  a  crop  is  more  important. 
Where  many  kinds  of  plants  are  grown  it  is  better  and 
cheaper,  as  a  rule,  to  depend  on  some  careful  seed  grower 
for  seeds  than  to  go  to  the  expense  of  raising  them,  although 
it  may  be  best  to  raise  a  few  of  the  more  important  kinds  of 
seeds  for  which  one's  conditions  are  best  adapted.  When 
one  makes  a  specialty  of  crops  like  onions,  cabbage,  and 
some  other  vegetables,  it  is  often  advantageous  to  raise 
the  seed  oneself,  since,  their  purity  and  pedigree  are  then 
known  and  no  risk  is  taken  about  it. 

Some  seeds  can  be  grown  to  better  advantage  in  one 
section  than  in  another.  For  instance,  cauliflower  seed 
cannot  be  raised  profitably  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States,  but  near  Puget  Sound  and  in  a  few  other  places  in 
this  country  it  can  be  raised  to  good  advantage.  Most  of 
the  cauliflower  seed  used  in  this  country  is  still  imported 
from  southern  Europe.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  the 
seeds  raised  in  one's  own  vicinity  or  in  a  similar  climate 
elsewhere  are  best  to  plant  if  they  are  properly  selected. 
Experience  seems  to  show  that  seed  grown  in  cold  climates 
generally  produces  an  earlier  crop  than  seed  grown  in  warm 
sections. 

Testing  Seeds. — No  matter  how  carefully  our  seeds 
may  have  been  grown  or  who  the  person  is  from  whom  we 
received  them,  it  may  save  much  trouble  and  loss  to  test 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING  81 

them  before  sowing.  This  may  be  done  by  sowing  them 
in  a  box  of  fine  loam  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  60  to  70 
degrees.  The  temperature  of  an  ordinary  living  room  is 
about  right.  For  this  purpose  use  a  box  about  four  inches 
deep  and  the  size  of  a  soap  box;  sow  the  seed  in  shallow 
drills  and  cover  the  box  with  glass  to  prevent  rapid  evapo- 
ration. One  hundred  seeds  should  be  counted  out  just  as 
they  come,  and  be  sown.  By  counting  the  seedlings  the 
percentage  of  germination  of  the  seed  is  easily  obtained. 

A  Simple  Germinating  Apparatus. — A  simple  method  of 
testing  seeds  is  as  follows:     Take  two  plates  and  in  one  of 


Fig.  32.     A  simple  device  for  testing  seed. 

them  place  a  folded  cloth, — woolen  flannel  is  preferable, 
since  it  must  remain  moist  for  a  long  time, — but  any  cloth 
will  do.  The  cloth  should  be  free  from  dyestuffs,  since 
they  may  contain  injurious  chemicals.  Wet  the  cloth,  pres- 
sing out  the  surplus  water,  leaving  it  very  damp,  but  not 
soaked.  Place  the  counted  seeds  between  its  folds  and 
mark  plainly  with  a  pencil  on  a  piece  of  paper  the  number 
of  seeds  put  in  and  the  date.  Then  cover  with  the  second 
plate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  32.  Plenty  of  air  will  get  in  between 
the  plates,  and  the  upper  one  will  prevent  evaporation. 
The  temperature  should  average  as  recommended.  Com- 
mon newspaper  or  wrapping  paper  may  take  the  place  of 
the  cloth,  but  requires  much  more  attention. 

Sometimes  seeds  that  barely  germinate  under  the  excep- 
tionally good  conditions  that  exist  in  a  warm  room  or  green- 


82  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

house  will  not  grow  readily  when  planted  outdoors,  so  that 
in  testing  seeds  it  is  very  important  to  note  the  vigor  of 
the  sprouts.  Seeds  that  start  strongly  in  the  house  may 
be  safely  planted  at  their  proper  season  outdoors,  while 
those  that  start  only  weak  sprouts  indoors  may  be  worth- 
less for  outdoor  planting.  An  instance  bearing  on  this 
occurred  a-  few  years  ago  at  Chester,  New  York,  where  an 
onion  grower  planted  seeds  three  years  old  which  germinated 
fairly  well  in  his  conservatory  but  failed  to  grow  outdoors, 
while  fresher  onion  seed  sown  at  the  same  time  grew  per- 
fectly. 

The  curing  and  storing  of  seeds  are  matters  of  much 
importance  and  greatly  influence  their  germinating  qualities. 
Seeds  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated  while  being  cured, 
or  they  will  mold  or  sprout,  either  of  which  seriously 
injures  their  value.  Seeds  of  some  kinds  will  sprout 
several  times  before  entirely  losing  their  germinating 
qualities,  but  they  lose  much  of  their  vitality  even  by  once 
sprouting.  Molded  seeds  may  retain  their  vitality  unim- 
pared,  but  if  to  be  offered  for  sale  their  dark  color  is 
objectionable,  for  it  must  always  be  regarded  as  an  evi- 
dence of  neglect  in  curing. 

It  is  important  also  to  prevent  seeds,  especially  tropical 
seeds,  as  those  of  melons,  squashes,  corn,  cucumbers, 
tomatoes,  etc.,  from  being  frozen  until  fully  dry.  The 
freezing  of  green  or  half-cured  seeds  injures  their  vitality 
and  often  destroys  it.  This  is  well  known  in  the  case  of 
corn,  where  the  seed  taken  from  an  ordinary  crib  in  the 
spring  often  fails  to  grow,  while  seed  corn  from  the  same 
crop  properly  cured  in  a  dry,  warm  room  grows  perfectly. 

Seeds  are  much  influenced  by  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  place  in  which  they  are  kept.  A  dry  place 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  successfully  keeping -garden  seeds, 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING  83 

and  if  warm  so  much  the  better  for  tropical  seeds.  The 
temperature  and  condition  of  a  good  living  room  are  almost 
ideal  for  storing  all  kinds  of  garden  seeds.  Most  if  not  all 
of  our  garden  seeds  are  unimpaired  by  even  severe  freezing 
when  perfectly  dried  out.  In  a  moist  place  garden  seeds 
lose  their  germinating  qualities  more  quickly  than  when 
they  are  kept  dry. 

Changing  Seed. — There  are  locations  so  well  adapted 
to  certain  particular  crops  that  some  varieties  seem  to  lose 
nothing  of  their  pristine  vigor  and  productiveness  when 
grown  there  for  many  years,  or  they  may  be  greatly  im- 
proved in  such  locations;  but  as  a  rule  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  change  seed  occasionally,  and  it  often  results  in  increased 
productiveness.  This  seems  to  be  a  fact,  yet  the  reason 
for  it  is  not  so  plain. 

Stock  Seed. — When  seed-raising  is  a  large  business  it 
is  out  of  the  question  to  have  all  the  specimens 
planted,  perfect  in  every  respect,  but  nothing  should  be 
planted  except  it  is  near  the  desired  type.  Each  year 
enough  perfect  specimens,  or  those  closely  approximating 
perfection,  should  be  selected  to  produce  the  seed  for  the 
grower's  use  the  following  season.  In  this  way  the  quality 
of  the  grower's  seed  stock  is  kept  up,  and  without  such 
care  the  stock  of  seed  is  liable  to  deteriorate  seriously. 
Seed  so  selected  and  improved  from  year  to  year  is  termed 
stock  seed. 

Seedsmen's  Specialties. — Most  seed  growers  and  dealers 
have  some  few  kinds  of  seed  in  which  they  are  especially 
interested.  These  they  select  with  more  than  ordinary 
care.  It  is  always  desirable  to  order  seed  of  our  specialties 
from  those  making  a  specialty  of  our  favorite  kinds  unless 
we  raise  them  ourselves.  To  secure  the  best  it  is  well  to 
order  early  in  the  season. 


84  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Seedsmen's  Humbugs. — Almost  without  exception 
every  dealer  in  seeds  sells  humbugs,  that  is,  worthless  or 
very  inferior  varieties.  If  he  is  honest  he  offers  them  simply 
because  his  customers  want  them.  If  he  is  dishonest  he 
is  very'  apt  to  misrepresent  and  praise  them  in  order  to 
make  customers  pay  a  big  profit. 

Novelties. — It  is  desirable  to  test  novelties  in  seeds 
and  plants,  but  this  should  be  done  cautiously,  and,  as  a 
rule,  it  is  best  not  to  be  in  too  great  haste  to  try  new  things. 
It  is  the  general  experience  of  growers  that  not  more  than 
one  in  ten  of  the  novelties  in  seeds,  fruits,  and  plants  is 
any  better  than  those  generally  cultivated.  In  the  history 
of  the  Minnesota  experiment  station  the  average  of  desirable 
seed  novelties  has  been  even  less  than  this. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIETIES 

The  laws  that  govern  heredity  and  descent  in  animals 
apply  as  well  to  plants,  and  by  intelligent  selection  and 
breeding  one  may  greatly  improve  or  even  originate  new 
varieties  of  vegetables  as  well  as  of  other  plants.  The  seed  stock 
of  desirable  new  or  improved  varieties  may  often  be  sold 
at  profitable  prices;  or  by  retaining  sole  ownership  of  such 
new  or  improved  kinds  one  may  perhaps  raise  crops  that  have 
highly  esteemed  qualities  as  to  size,  shape,  color,  flavor, 
hardiness,  season  of  maturity,  or  other  features,  and  so 
command  an  advanced  price.  Thus  a  grower  may 
sometimes  be  well  rewarded  for  his  care  and  attention  in 
improving  his  specialties;  but  careful  study  and  persistence 
are  necessary  to  success,  and  few  persons  are  keen  enough 
in  their  powers  of  observation,  to  succeed  in  this  line  of  work. 

There  is  constant  tendency  for  cultivated  plants  to  vary 
widely  from  the  original  form^  though  this  feature  may  not 
manifest  itself  for  many  generations  after  cultivation  has 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIETIES  85 

commenced.  The  higher  the  state  of  cultivation  to  which 
a  plant  is  subjected,  the  higher  are  the  chances  of  its 
producing  new  features.  In  nature,  plants  grow  under 
fixed  conditions,  so  they  do  not  vary  much.  When  a  plant 
once  commences  to  vary  from  the  original  type,  the  changes 
oftentimes  come  very  rapidly,  and  the  possibilities  are 
endless.  Thus  from  a  wild  plant  two  or  more  feet 
high  with  only  a  few  leaves  has  been  developed: 

(1)  the  modern  cabbage  of  (a)  the  wrinkled,  (b)  the  smooth, 
(c)  the  red-leaved,  and  (d)  the  many  ornamental  kinds; 

(2)  Brussels  sprouts,  with  numerous  small  cabbage  heads 
on  a  stem  two  or  more  feet  high;  (3)  cauliflowers,  in  which 
the  inflorescence  becomes  thick  and  fleshy;  (4)  the  various 
kinds  of  kale;  and  (5)  cow  cabbage,  which  in  the  Jersey 
Islands  has  been  known  to  grow  to  the  height  of  sixteen 
feet  and   strong  enough   for  rafters  of  cow  sheds.     The 
many  varieties  of  garden  and  field  plants  are  conclusive 
evidence  of  the  variation  of  plants  under  cultivation. 

All  of  our  valuable  garden  vegetables  are  the  result  of  almost 
endless  care  in  selection  and  in  a  few  cases  of  artificial  as 
well  as  chance  crossing.  They  must  be  regarded  as  artificial 
productions  having  a  constant  tendency  to  revert  to  the  inferior 
wild  state,  which  we  must  constantly  try  to  overcome  if  their 
desirable  qualities  are  to  be  maintained. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  most  successful  breeding  of  plants 
to  have  in  view  a  well-defined  purpose,  and  in  selecting  seed 
not  to  vary  the  ideal  standard  of  excellence  sought,  for  such 
variation  increases  the  difficulty  of  fixing  desired  character- 
istics. 

It  is  found  to  be  quite  a  general  law  obtaining  among 
plants  that  the  qualities  of  the  parent  are  much  more  potent  and 
thus  more  likely  to  be  transmitted  than  some  especially  desir- 
able qualities  of  a  few  individual  fruits  which  may  occur  on 


86  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

a  plant  otherwise  defective.  For  instance,  Livingstone,  who 
has  done  much  to  improve  the  tomato,  selected  seed  for 
fifteen  years  from  the  best  tomatoes  that  approached 
most  nearly  in  size  and  other  qualities  the  best  modern 
tomatoes,  without  noting  much  improvement.  He  says, 
"I  was  then  no  nearer  the  goal  than  when  I  started.  Such 
stock  seed  would  reproduce  every  trace  of  their  ancestry; 
viz.,  thin-fleshedj  rough,  undesirable  fruits."  It  finally 
occurred  to  him  to  select  from  the  special  merits  of  the 
plants  as  a  whole  instead  of  from  the  best  fruits  without 
regard  to  the  plants  on  which  they  grow.  Improvement 
then  came  easily  and  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  years  he  obtained 
the  Paragon,  Acme,  and  Perfection,  varieties  which  were 
vastly  superior  to,  and  which  have  entirely  supplanted,  the 
old  varieties  of  tomatoes.  Again,  in  selecting  seed  corn  it 
is  more  important  to  save  seed  from  plants  having  ears 
approaching  the  desired  size  of  cob,  kernel,  etc.,  rather 
than  to  select  the  largest  kernels  alone  or  to  select  from 
ears  after  they  have  been  pulled. 

When  it  is  desired  to  hasten  the  ripening  period  of  a 
variety,  only  the  seed  from  the  earliest  maturing  specimens  from 
a  plant  having  the  largest  number  of  early  specimens  should 
be  planted.  In  order  to  fix  late  maturing  qualities,  seed  should 
be  saved  from  the  late  maturing  fruits  on  plants  possessing 
these  features  to  the  greatest  extent. 

The  continued  selection  of  any  seed  from  inferior  speci- 
mens results  in  the  fixing  of  the  poorer  qualities  even  more 
surely  than  the  selection  of  seed  from  the  better  plants  results  in 
improvement.  By  judicious  selection  the  cabbage  has 
sometimes  been  changed  from  a  biennial  to  an  annual 
producing  no  head  at  all  but  going  to  seed  the  first  year. 
When  cabbage  has  been  grown  for  several  generations 
from  stem  sprouts  and  not  from  head  sprouts  the  effect 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIETIES  87 

has  sometimes  been  to  lengthen  the  stem  at  the  expense 
of  the  head,  until  the  seed  stock  becomes  run  out  entirely 
and  is  in  effect  no  longer  true,  modern  cabbage  seed,  since 
it  has  partly  reverted  to  the  original  type.  An  instance 
of  this  occurred  in  a  neighborhood  in  Nova  Scotia,  where, 
for  the  sake  of  economy,  for  a  number  of  years  cabbage  seed 
was  grown  by  cutting  off  the  heads  and  planting  out  the 
stumps  only,  until  the  stems  became  nearly  two  feet  long 
and  the  heads  not  much  bigger  than  twice  the  size  of  a  man's 
fist. 

The  practice  of  sowing  the  seed  from  plants  remaining 
in  the  garden  after  the  best  specimens  have  been  gathered  for 
home  use,  as  often  happens,  is  a  very  poor  one.  Under  such 
treatment  there  is  a  very  general  tendency  for  the  stock  to 
degenerate.  Where  seed  is  to  be  saved  in  a  mixed  garden, 
a  few  hills  of  plants  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  for  this 
special  purpose,  without  being  picked  at  all.  It  is  very 
important  to  save  seed  from  well-ripened  fruits.  Very 
immature  seeds  will  often  grow,  but  they  give  weak 
though  perhaps  early-maturing  plants,  which  are  very 
liable  to  disease.  According  to  Professor  Arthur,  it  is  not 
the  slightly  unripe  seeds  that  give  a  noticeable  increase  in 
earliness,  but  very  unripe  seeds  gathered  from  fruit  (toma- 
toes) scarcely  of  full  size  and  still  very  green.  Such  seeds  weigh 
scarcely  more  than  two-thirds  as  much  as  those  fully  ripe; 
they  grow  readily  but  lack  constitutional  vigor.  Professor 
E.  S.  Goff  has  made  a  great  number  of  experiments  along 
this  line  and  remarks  that  the  increase  in  earliness  in 
tomatoes  following  the  use  of  very  immature  seeds,  "is  ac- 
companied by  a  marked  decrease  in  the  vigor  of  the  plant 
and  in  the  size,  firmness,  and  keeping  quality  of  the  fruit." 

A  few  years  of  careful  observation  and  experience  in 
following  out  these  principles  in  the  breeding  of  plants 


88  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

with  a  special  object  in  view,  will  convince  the  most  skep- 
tical of  the  wonderful  power  which  man  possesses  to  adapt 
plants  to  his  needs. 

Cross-  and  Self-pollination  of  Plants. — The  flowers  of 
plants  are  said  to  be  either  self-pollinized  or  cross-pollinized. 
By  self-pollination  is  meant  the  pollination  of  the  female 
organ  (pistil)  by  the  male  element  (pollen)  of  the  same 
flower  or,  in  some  cases,  of  different  flowers  of  the  same 
plant,  as  in  corn  and  squashes,  which  have  two  kinds  of 
flowers.  By  crossing  or  cross-pollination  is  meant  the  pol- 
lination of  the  female  organ  by  pollen  from  another  plant. 
The  crossing  of  different  varieties  generally  gives  increased 
vigor  in  the  progeny,  but  its  effect  is  variable  and  may  re- 
sult in  the  loss  as  well  as  in  the  increase  of  their  desirable 
qualities.  Most  of  our  cultivated  plants  are  crossed  by 
natural  processes.  The  crossing  of  different  seed  stocks  of 
the  same  varieties  of  plants  is  generally  a  great  advantage, 
since  it  generally  results  in  increased  vigor  without  loss  of 
desirable  qualities.  Seeds  from  self-pollinized  flowers  are 
not  as  productive  as  crossed  flowers.  Darwin  found  that 
cabbage  plants  from  seeds  that  had  been  crossed  produced 
nearly  three  times  the  weight  produced  by  self-pollinized 
seeds. 

In  the  case  of  Indian  corn,  experiments  made  at  the 
Illinois  experiment  station  show  that  while  cross-fertiliza- 
tion is  not  necessary,  it  is  very  desirable.  Corn  grown 
from  crossed  seed  in -nearly  all  cases  was  clearly  increased 
in  size  as  the  result  of  crossing.  "Plants  grown  from  self- 
fertilized  seed  corn  were  in  most  cases  notably  inferior  in 
size  and  vigor  to  the  plants  grown  from  hand-crossed  seed 
or  from  seed  simply  selected  which  was  probably  naturally 
crossed.  One  plat  from  self-fertilized  seed  had  nearly 
half  the  stalks  deformed  in  such  a  manner  that  instead  of 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIETIES  89 

standing  up  straight  they  turned  off  at  a  right  angle  at  or 
near  the  point  where  the  ear  was  produced,  thus  showing 
the  tassel  on  a  level  with  the  ear.  Many  of  the  tassels 
were  very  deficient  in  pollen."  In  another  plot  from  self- 
fertilized  seed,  nearly  all  the  tassels  were  abortive.  All 
the  plants  from  self-fertilized  seed  produced  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  barren  stalks  or  poorly  filled  ears  than  plants  of 
the  same  varieties  from  hand-crossed  seed  or  from  seed 
naturally  fertilized.  On  the  other  hand,  the  flowers  of 
barley  and  wheat  are  so  constructed  that  their  flowers 
seldom  open  and  hence  are  naturally  self-fertilized,  but 
even  here  artificial  crossing  results  in  increased  produc- 
tiveness. 

The  effect  of  cross-pollination  is  not  always  apparent 
in  the  progeny  of  the  first  generation,  but  is  frequently 
plainly  to  be  seen  in  the  crossed  fruit  or  seed  the  first  year. 
Differences  may  appear,  however,  as  the  result  of  the  cross 
the  second  or  later  generation,  which  were  not  suspected. 
When  corn  is  crossed  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  effect 
of  the  cross  is  apparent  the  first  year  in  the  grain,  but 
careful  experiments  plainly  show  that  this  is  not  so,  and 
that  flint  corn  grains  which  do  not  show  a  trace  of  the 
admixture  of  sweet  corn  the  first  generation  may  produce 
ears  the  second  generation  showing  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  sweet  corn,  and  the  same  is  true  of  other  kinds 
that  are  crossed.  The  same  truth  undoubtedly  holds  good 
in  the  case  of  other  plants. 

Mixing  Varieties. — Practically  varieties  of  plants  can  be 
mixed  only  in  the  blossom ;  and  in  order  to  mix  the  different 
varieties  both  must  be  in  blossom  at  the  same  time.  On 
this  account  potatoes  do  not  mix  in  the  hill.  The  varieties 
of  some  species  of  plants  are  much  inclined  to  mix.  Any 
two  varieties  of  corn,  melons,  squashes,  and  cucumbers  are 


90  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

especially  liable  to  be  crossed  if  growing  in  the  same  field 
and  in  flower  at  the  same  time.  However,  two  kinds  of 
corn,  of  beans,  and  of  other  plants  may  be  grown  on  adjoin- 
ing pieces  of  land  without  danger  of  mixing,  providing  that 
they  are  not  in  flower  at  the  same  time;  e.  g.,  Cory  and 
Evergreen  sweet  corn  if  planted  at  the  same  time  may  be 
grown  for  seed  close  together  and  will  not  mix,  since  the 
Cory  would  be  entirely  out  of  flower  when  the  Evergreen 
came  into  flower.  Melons  and  squashes  never  mix  together, 
for  although  this  belief  is  widespread  the  most  careful  ex- 
periments have  failed  in  getting  any  fruit  when  the  one  has 
been  pollenized  by  the  other.  Neither  do  muskmelons  and 
watermelons  mix  together. 

Distance  Between  Varieties. — The  distance  which  should 
intervene  between  varieties  liable  to  mix  is  variously 
estimated  by  different  growers  and  is  influenced  by  various 
conditions.  The  pollen  of  corn,  hay  grasses,  and  many 
other  plants  is  moved  by  the  wind;  and  when  different 
varieties  of  corn  flowering  at  the  same  time  are  planted 
for  seed  there  will  be  more  liability  of  their  mixing  when  the 
pieces  of  land  on  which  they  grow  are  in  line  of  the 
prevailing  winds  than  when  east  and  west  of  each  other. 
If  a  grove  or  hill  intervenes  between  varieties  it  will  often 
prevent  crossing.  When  varieties  of  each  plant  are  not 
on  a  line  of  prevailing  winds,  they  are  reasonably  free  from 
mixing  if  500  feet  apart;  otherwise,  at  least  1000  feet 
should  intervene. 

Such  plants  as  melons,  cucumbers,  squashes,  onions,  and 
most  other  plants  with  conspicuous  flowers,  are  pollenized 
by  insects  to  whose  bodies  the  pollen  becomes  attached 
and  is  thus  carried  from  one  flower  to  another.  This  pollen 
is  not  light  and  powdery  as  in  corn  and  many  other  plants 
but  is  rather  heavy.  It  is  obvious,  then,  that  the  direction 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIETIES  91 

of  the  wind  has  little  effect  in  crossing  such  plants.  It  is 
generally  agreed  that  different  varieties  of  plants  pollenized 
by  insects  should  have  at  least  1000  feet  between  them  to 
prevent  mixing,  but  this  will  often  occur  to  some  extent 
even  with  these  precautions.  The  greatest  care  should  be 
taken  to  keep  stock  seed  from  being  mixed. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  How  are  seeds  tested? 

2.  How  are  jeeds  cured  and  stored? 

3.  What    is    meant    by    stock    seed?     Specialties?     Humbugs? 
Novelties? 

4.  Illustrate  the  law  that  the  constant  tendency  for  cultivated 
plants  is  to  vary  widely  from  the  original  form. 

5.  Illustrate  the  law  that  the  qualities  of  the  parent  are  more 
likely  to  be  transmitted  than  the  desirable  qualities  of  a  few  individual 
fruits. 

6.  Why  is  it  a  poor  plan  to  select  seed  from  plants  remaining  in 
the  garden  late  after  the  best  specimens  have  been  gathered? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  cross-and  self-pollination? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  cross-and  of  self-pollination? 

9.  How  can  the  mixing  of  varieties  be  prevented? 
10.     How  are  plants  pollenized? 


CHAPTER  VI 
GLASS  STRUCTURES 

MARKET  gardeners  are  using  the  cold  frame,  hotbed, 
and  greenhouse  more  and  more  each  year.  Some  find 
that  they  cannot  get  along  without  hotbeds  or  a  small 
greenhouse,  or  both.  Some  are  giving  up  the  work  out- 
side and  devoting  more  of  their  time  to  the  more  extensive 
work  inside.  Home  gardeners  find  hotbeds  and  cold 
frames  of  special  value  in  starting  early  cabbage,  tomatoes, 
celery,  and  flowers.  In  some  of  the  Southern  states  cold 
frames  are  used  to  winter  over  cabbage  and  cauliflower.  In 
the  Northern  states  spinach  may  often  be  planted  in  a  cold 
frame  in  August  or  September  and  wintered  over,  coming 
on  early  in  the  spring. 

Advantages. — Some  type  of  glass  structure  is  desirable 
for  the  market  gardener  for  the  following  reasons:  (1)  to 
get  early  plants;  (2)  to  start  plants,  such  as  celery,  that 
may  be  set  in  the  field  after  other  crops;  (3)  by  starting 
some  plants  under  glass,  weeds,  insects,  and  diseases  are 
more  easily  .kept  in  check;  (4)  better  use  of  manure  in  soil  can 
be  had  under  glass;  (5)  hotbed  manure  is  well  decayed 
and  can  be  used  to  advantage  on  many  crops;  (6)  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  manure  is  driving  many  gardeners 
to  more  intensive  gardening  under  glass. 

Cold  Frames. — The  term  cold  frame  is  applied  to 
frames  covered  with  glass  and  used  to  protect  plants  in 
winter,  or  for  forwarding  them  without  any  heat  other  than 
that  derived  from  the  sun.  It  is  the  simplest  form  of  glass 
structure.  They  are  generally  made  4^  feet  or  6  feet 
wide  and  of  any  length  or  depth  that  convenience  may 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  93 


suggest.  The  sashes  for  covering  them  are  generally 
feet  or  3x6  in  size.  The  location  should  be  near  to  water 
and  to  the  house,  preferably  sloping  to  the  south,  and  well 
protected  on  the  north  and  west  by  buildings,  trees,  etc. 
If  there  is  no  protection  on  the  north  and  west,  a  tight 
board  fence  six  feet  high  will  answer  the  purpose. 

In  making  the  bed  the  following  are  requisites  :  Enough 
2x12  in.  plank  to  go  the  length  of  the  north  side  and  the 
same  length  of  2x6 
in.  plank  for  the  south 
side  of  the  bed,  and 
2x4  in.  stakes,  two  or 
more  feet  long,  for 
each  corner  and  to 
support  the  sides  firm- 
ly in  place,  and  sash 

and  shutters  tO  COVer.  Fig.  33.  A  movable  cold  frame,  which  may  be 

stored  out  of  the  way  in  summer.  It  is  generally 

Boards  may  be  Used  made  of  1-inch  boards,  and  is  very  convenient 
for  those  using  only  a  few  sashes. 

if     planks     are     not 

available.  The  planks  should  be  made  into  a  box  with 
its  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  sash  and  extending 
east  and  west.  See  Fig.  33.  The  depth  of  the  frame  will 
vary  with  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  it.  If  low-growing 
plants,  such  as  celery,  are  to  be  grown,  the  north  side 
should  be  twelve  inches  high  and  the  south  side  six.  If 
tomatoes  are  to  be  started,  the  north  side  should  be  about 
sixteen  inches  and  the  south  side  ten  inches,  so  as  to  give 
head  room  to  the  plants.  The  slope  of  five  or  six  inches 
thus  obtained  permits  of  quick  drainage  during  a  rain  and 
also  gives  plenty  of  sunlight.  The  planks  or  boards  should 
be  nailed  to  the  stakes,  and  end  pieces  put  in.  The  outside 
of  the  frame  should  be  banked  with  dirt  or  strawy  manuEB 
to  keep  the  interior  warmer. 


94  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

The  soil  in  the  frame  should  be  of  the  best  quality  if 
plants  are  to  be  grown  in  it.  The  frame  is  now  ready  for 
the  sash  and  plants.  More  durable  and  expensive  frames 
are  sometimes  made  of  brick  or  stone  for  the  sides, 
and  sometimes  four-inch  strips  are  put  on  wherever  two 
of  the  sashes  come  together,  to  serve  as  a  support.  Frames 
are  also  frequently  made  several  feet  deep,  but  the  same 
general  rule  applies  in  the  building  of  them  as  is  here  given. 
Hotbeds  and  cold  frames  are  sometimes  made  so  that  they 
may  be  taken  down  and  stored  flat.  This  is  an  advantage 
in  some  cases,  since  they  may  be  stored  in  a  much  smaller 
space  and  be  better  protected  over  winter. 

Cold  frames  are  used  in  the  Middle  states  to  winter  over 
cabbage  and  lettuce  plants.  The  plants  are  started  in 
September  and  planted  into  them  when  grown  to  a  good 
transplanting  size.  In  severe  climates  this  is  not  a  safe 
method. 

Cold  frames  are  used  in  the  North  in  the  spring  for 
forwarding  lettuce  and  other  early  crops,  and  still  later  for 
melons,  cucumbers,  and  other  tropical  plants.  They  are 
also  used  to  extend  the  season  of  growth  during  the  autumn 
months  and  to  protect  some  of  the  half-hardy  plants,  such 
as  spinach,  during  the  winter.  They  require  ventilation  dur- 
ing the  day  in  mild  weather,  and  on  cold  nights  should  be  cov- 
ered with  mats  and  shutters  or  shutters  alone.  They  are  very 
inexpensive  and  very  useful  in  the  garden;  but  where  the 
materials  for  making  them  can  be  had  at  low  cost,  hotbeds 
are  much  more  satisfactory  for  forcing  vegetables. 

Hotbeds. — Hotbeds  are  made  very  much  like  cold 
frames,  only  they  are  warmed  by  fermenting  horse  manure 
or  other  material  placed  under  the  soil,  and  hence  they 
must  be  dug  out  deep  enough  to  make  room  for  it. 
The  amount  of  manure  necessary  to  properly  warm  a  hot- 


OLASS  STRUCTURES 


95 


bed  will  depend  very  much  on  the  season  of  the  year  at 
which  the  bed  is  made  up,  and  the  crop  to  be  grown.  In 
the  colder  Northern  states  when  the  hotbeds  are  made  up 
at  the  beginning  of  March,  from  24  to  30  inches  of  manure 
should  be  used,  and  covered  with  six  or  eight  inches  of 
rich  soil.  Later  in  the  season  18  inches  or  even  one  foot 
of  manure  may  be  sufficient.  In  favorable  locations 
hotbeds  may  be  used  all  winter  for  growing  lettuce,  radishes, 
etc.  This  is  not  often  practicable  in  the  extreme  Northern 
states,  and  cheap  greenhouses  are  generally  used  there 
during  winter  and  hotbeds  only  during  the  spring. 


Fig.  34.     A  cross  section  of  a  hotbed. 

The  hotbed  and  frames  for  early  spring  use  should  be 
prepared  in  the  autumn,  so  that  no  digging  will  have  to  be 
done  in  the  spring.  The  soil  for  spring  use  should  generally 
be  put  into  them,  covered  with  leaves,  and  the  shutters  and 
mats  put  on  to  keep  out  the  frost.  If  this  has  not  been  done 
the  sash  may  be  put  on  in  the  early  spring,  which  will  par- 
tially thaw  out  the  soil  in  the  bed;  or,  by  another  method, 
more  manure  may  be  used,  putting  it  on  the  surface  of  the 
frozen  land,  and  the  frame  may  be  set  on  top  of  it.  In  the 
latter  case  the  manure  should  extend  at  least  one  foot  beyond 
the  sides  of  the  frame  and  be  one-half  again  as  deep  as  when 
placed  in  a  pit,  and  the  frame  should  be  banked  up  with 


96  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

manure.  It  is  quite  common  practice  to  make  movable 
frames  of  one-inch  boards  large  enough  for  three  or  four 
sash,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33.  These  are  kept  from  year  to 
year,  being  set  on  top  of  the  manure  and  the  earth  put 
into  them. 

Hotbed  Manure. — The  material  generally  used  for 
heating  hotbeds  is  fresh  horse  manure,  but  sheep  manure 
and  even  spent  hops  may  serve  the  purpose.  Of  animal 
manures,  that  from  horses  fed  on  highly  nitrogenous  foods, 
i.  e.,  on  grain  foods,  will  heat  best.  The  preparation  of  the 
manure  is  very  simple.  It  should  be  gathered  together  in 
a  pile,  as  fresh  as  may  be,  when  if  moist  it  will  generally 
heat,  no  matter  how  cold  the  weather.  If  it  does  not  start 
to  heat  readily,  a  few  buckets  of  hot  water  poured  into  the 
center  of  the  pile  will  often  start  it.  When  it  gets  nicely 
started  the  pile  should  be  turned  over,  throwing  the  outside 
manure  into  the  center  of  the  pile  and  breaking  up  all  the 
lumps.  In  a  few  days  it  will  heat  again  and  will  then  be 
ready  to  go  into  the  frames,  but  do  not  put  it  into  the 
frames  until  it  is  heating  thoroughly.  Clear  horse  manure 
heats  too  violently,  and  should  be  mixed  with  about  its 
own  bulk  of  leaves  or  fine  straw.  The  leaves  used  to  keep 
frost  out  of  the  frames  during  winter  now  come  in  to  good 
advantage  for  mixing  with  the  manure.  Of  course,  if  the 
manure  gathered  has  considerable  straw  in  it  this  admix- 
ture is  not  necessary. 

The  way  of  putting  manure  in  the  frames  calls  for  some 
little  care.  It  should  be  broken  up  very  fine,  mixed  with 
leaves  or  other  material  and  spread  as  evenly  as  possible 
over  the  whole  bed,  taking  special  pains  to  have  the  frame 
well  filled  in  the  center,  as  it  settles  there  much  more  than 
at  the  sides.  As  the  manure  is 'put  in,  it  should  be  packed 
down  quite  firmly  by  the  feet,  taking  great  care  to  have  it 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  97 

evenly  packed  throughout.  Now  put  on  the  sash  and  cover 
until  the  bed  heats  well  all  through.  If  it  does  not  start  to 
heating  quickly  enough,  a  few  buckets  of  hot  water  should 
be  added.  When  well  warmed  through,  level  off  the  top  of 
the  manure  and  cover  with  soil  six  inches  deep.  This  soil 
should  have  been  prepared  in  the  autumn  and  protected 
from  frost  by  mulching  or  by  putting  it  under  the  leaves  in 
the  bed ;  but  if  this  provision  has  not  been  made  the  soil  may 
be  searched  for  in  cellars,  under  strawstacks,  in  the  woods 
under  leaves,  or  elsewhere,  or  the  soil  may  be  thawed  out 
by  the  use  of  sash  and  manure.  As  this  latter  process  is 
tedious,  all  experienced  growers  prepare  their  soil  in  the 
autumn. 

After  the  soil  is  put  on  it  should  be  left  until  it  is 
warmed  through  and  the  weed  seeds  near  the  surface  have 
germinated.  Then  remove  the  sashes  and  make  the  sur- 
face fine  with  a  rake,  and  the  bed  is  ready  to  receive  the 
seed.  A  hotbed  made  up  in  this  way  in  March  will  continue 
to  give  out  heat  for  five  or  six  weeks,  after  which  it  will  be 
practically  a  cold  frame;  but  since  after  the  middle  of  April 
the  sun  is  pretty  high  and  the  bed  well  warmed,  the  plants 
will  continue  to  flourish. 

Hotbeds  require  more  water  than  cold  frames  and  more 
care  in  the  matter  of  ventilation.  They  should  not  be 
started  until  a  short  time  before  one  is  ready  to  use  them. 
If  seedlings  are  to  be  raised  in  them  to  be  later  on  trans- 
planted, start  only  enough  sashes  to  grow  the  seedlings  and 
do  not  start  other  hotbeds  until  the  seedlings  are  big  enough 
to  be  removed  into  them. 

For  the  ordinary  farm  garden  four  or  five  hotbed  sashes 
are  a  great  plenty,  and  no  more  should  be  started  than  can 
be  properly  attended  to.  These  should  be  started  about 
the  first  of  March.  This  number  will  be  found  sufficient 


98 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


for  all  the  early  radishes,  onions,  lettuce,  cress  and  other 
greens  for  the  table  in  early  spring,  and  for  raising  tomatoes, 
cabbage,  and  other  vegetable  plants  to  be  set  out  later  in 
the  open  ground. 

Shutters  and  mats  are  used  for  covering  the  sash  of  hot- 
beds and  cold  frames  at  night  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation 
of  the  heat. 

Fire  Hotbeds. — Horse  manure  will  undoubtedly  con- 
tinue to  be  used  for  warming  hotbeds,  no  matter  how  much 
greenhouse  construction  or  means  of  artificial  heating  may 


Fig. 


A  fire  hotbed. 


be  cheapened,  but  there  are  some  situations  wnere  it  may 
be  more  economical  and  convenient  to  use  a  forcing  bed  or 
what  is  sometimes  called  a  fire  hotbed.  This  closely  resem- 
bles a  hotbed  in  outward  appearance,  but  instead  of  being 
heated  with  manure  a  flue  is  used  to  take  its  place,  and  it  is 
warmed  by  the  smoke  of  wood,  coal,  or  other  fuel.  In  this 
case  a  pit  should  be  excavated,  furnished  with  permanent 
walls  and  a  good  strong  floor  to  support  the  soil  in  which 


OLASS  STRUCTURES  99 

the  crops  grow.  Ten-inch  terra  cotta  or  glazed  drain  tile 
is  a  cheap  material  for  the  flue,  or  brick  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  furnace  and  the  first  eight  or  ten  feet  of  the 
flue  should  be  made  of  common  hard  brick  and  have  a  lining 
of  fire  brick  set  in  fire  clay. 

If  the  pit  is  not  over  thirty  feet  long  the  fire  box  should 
be  at  one  end  and  the  chimney  at  the  other;  but  if  much 
longer  it  is  better  to  have  the  chimney  over  the  fire  box  and 
to  run  the  tile  to  the  end  of  the  house  and  return  back  to  the 
chimney.  This  chimney  should  have  dampers  so  arranged 
that  when  kindling  the  fire  a  direct  draft  may  be  had  into 
it,  and  after  starting  the 
fire  the  heat  and  smoke 
can  then  be  forced  to  go 
through  the  whole  length 
of  the  pipe.  This  ar- 
rangement is  desirable 
on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty in  getting  a  draft 
through  a  long,  flat,  cold 
flue.  In  laying  such  a  flue,  it  should  rise  slightly  through- 
out its  whole  length  from  fire  box  to  chimney. 

The  furnace  should  vary  in  size  according  to  whether 
coal  or  wood  is  to  be  used  for  fuel.  For  wood  the  furnace 
should  be  18  inches  wide  and  be  arched  over  the  required 
length,  generally  4J/2  feet,  with  cast-iron  grate  bars  set  in 
the  walls.  There  should  be  an  ash  pit  of  suitable  size,  and 
both  it  and  the  fire  box  should  have  suitable  iron  doors  set 
in  brick.  The  accompanying  illustrations  show  the  general 
arrangement  of  such  a  house.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  build  a 
low  shed  for  fuel  on  the  end  where  the  furnace  is  located. 

The  heat  from  a  flue  is  very  dry,  and  much  more  water 


100 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


is  required  when  hotbeds  are  heated  in  this  way  than  when 
manure  is  used  as  a  source  of  heat. 

A  Greenhouse  Hotbed. — A  greenhouse  may  be  heated 
by  manure  or  a  combination  of  manure  and  other  artificial 
heat.  In  the  following  lines  and  illustrations  is  given  the 
plan  of  what  may  be  called  a  greenhouse  hotbed  which  has 


ELev/mon. 


BED. 


PATH. 


BED. 


n/w. 

Fig.  37.     Plan  and  elevation  of  hotbed  greenhouse. 

been  in  very  successful  operation  at  the  Minnesota  Agri- 
cultural School.  The  description  is  from  an  article  on  the 
subject  by  R.  S.  Mackintosh,  Extension  Horticulturist. 

"There  are  disadvantages  in  hotbeds,  as,  for  instance, 
the  transplanting,  ventilating,  watering,  etc.,  must  be  done 
from  the  outside  even  in  severe  weather,  while  in  a  house 
like  the  one  shown  in  the  figure  these  operations  can  be 
carried  on  easily.  The  house  is  simply  a  hotbed  built  so 


GLASS  STRUCTURES 


101 


as  to  allow  a  person  to  go  inside  to  do  all  the  work  of  caring 
for  the  plants.  Fig.  37  shows  the  general  plan  of  the  house. 
The  size  is  12x24  feet.  The  roof  consists  of  sixteen  sashes, 
each  3x6  feet.  Any  number  of  sashes  may  be  used  according 
to  the  size  of  the  house  desired.  To  receive  the  most 
sunlight  the  house  should  extend  north  and  south ;  the  light 
will  then  strike  both  sides  of  the  plants.  The  south  end 
of  the  house  is  glazed  from  the  surface  of  the  bed  up  to 


Fig.  38.     Sectional  view  of  hotbed  greenhouse. 

the  rafters.  It  is  not  necessary  to  excavate  the  full  depth 
of  four  feet,  because  the  earth  that  is  thrown  out  can  be 
used  to  bank  up  with  on  either  side,  making  a  terrace  as 
sloping  as  desired. 

"The  heat  is  furnished  by  two  to  three  feet  of  well-pre- 
pared manure  in  each  bed,  over  which  is  placed  five  inches  of 
soil.  The  sashes  are  fastened  to  the  rafters  by  screws 
which  prevents  their  being  lifted  by  heavy  winds  and  at 
the  same  time  allows  them  to  be  removed  very  easily  when 


102 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


desired  to  replace  soil  or  manure.  Ventilation  is  provided 
for  by  fastening  one  or  more  sashes  with  hinges  at  the 
bottom  so  they  may  be  raised  as  high  as  necessary  at  the  top. 
"Many  kinds  of  building  material  may  be  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  wall,  beds,  etc.  Lumber  is  used  in  the 
building  shown  in  the  figure,  but  brick  or  stone  would  be 
more  durable,  though  it  would  add  considerably  to  the  first 
cost.  The  posts  are  three  feet  apart,  extend  about  two 
feet  below  the  planks,  and  are  braced.  The  inside  rows  of 
posts  need  not  be  quite  as  strong  as  the  outside  ones,  and 
need  not  be  braced.  When  a  house  is  not  more  than  twenty- 
four  feet  long  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  support  the  roof 

in  more  than  one  place. 
This  is  done  by  extend- 
ing two  of  the  middle 
posts  to  the  rafters. 

"In  Fig.  38  is  shown 
a  cross  section  of  this 
greenhouse  and  the  way 
the  sashes  and  rafters 
are  joined  at  top  and 
bottom.  The  sashes  are 
cut  so  as  to  fit  tightly 
at  the  top  and  the  plate 
is  beveled  a  little  so  as 
to  allow  water  to  run 
off  quickly. 

"There    are    sixteen 
wood  shutters  for  cover- 
These  are  made  the  same 
One  cleat  is  put 


3<?.  in. 


Fig.  39. 


Cross   section    of  lean-to  green- 
house hotbed. 


ing  the  sashes  on  cold  nights. 

width  as  the  sashes  but  six  inches  longer. 

on  the  upper  side  at  one  end,  and  the  other  on  the  lower 

side  at  the  other  end.     When  put  on,  the  upper  cleat  is 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  103 

against  the  ridge  pole,  which  leaves  the  shutters  clear 
for  the  water  to  run  off.  They  are  made  of  second  fencing 
matched  and  dressed. 

"In  this  house  there  is  glass  over  the  path,  which  is  not 
necessary  in  the  lean-to  plan,  shown  in  Fig.  39,  where  the 
sash  is  all  on  the  south  side  of  the  path.  It  is  important 
to  have  crops  grow  as  close  to  the  glass  as  may  be,  and  this 
fact  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind.  This  style  of 
house  is  susceptible  of  many  modifications.  It  may  be 
used  as  a  lean-to  on  the  south  side  of  the  dwelling,  where 
it  may  receive  a  little  heat  from  the  house.  Its  limitations 
are  about  the  same  as  those  of  hotbeds.  When  such  a 
house  is  intended  for  use  in  winter,  it  might  be  an  advantage 
to  so  plan  it  that  the  manure  from  one-half  could  be  renewed 
every  five  or  six  weeks." 

GREENHOUSES 

Greenhouse  is  a  term  applied  to  glass  structures  of  the 
larger  sort  having  special  heating  apparatus  and  used 
for  growing  plants.  Interest  in  the  greenhouse  growing 
of  plants  has  increased  very  materially  in  the  last  few  years, 
and  there  are  many  gardeners  who  manage  from  a  few 
thousand  feet  of  glass  up  to  several  acres. 

The  advantages  of  greenhouses  over  hotbeds  lies  in 
the  ease  of  working  and  of  controlling  climatic  conditions 
under  them  as  compared  with  hotbeds.  They  are  easier 
to  heat,  and  if  installed  with  the  Skinner  irrigation  system, 
are  easier  to  water.  They  represent  a  very  much  greater 
investment  than  hotbeds,  but  two  or  three  more  crops  can 
be  taken  off  than  is  possible  with  hotbeds.  Well  managed, 
a  greenhouse  can  be  used  at  least  ten  months  of  the  year. 

Types. — There  are  at  least  three  distinct  types  of  houses 
as  regards  construction:  lean-to,  even-span,  and  three- 


104  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

quarter.  To  this  we  might  add  one  known  as  the  side-hill 
greenhouse.  This  is  cheaper  to  build,  but  rather  hard  to 
manage,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  on  uneven  ground.  The 
lean-to  house  is  usually  placed  next  a  building  as  a  lean-to, 
but  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  even-span  or  the  three- 
quarter-span  house.  Usually  the  even-span  house  should 
run  north  and  south  and  the  three-quarter-span  east  and 
west  to  make  the  best  use  of  sunlight.  But  this  is  not  so 
important  if  part  iron  construction  is  used,  which  allows 
more  light  to  get  into  the  house. 

Materials. — Greenhouses  are  constructed  of  cypress, 
concrete,  and  iron.  The  all-iron  construction  is  probably 
not  as  serviceable,  especially  in  the  north,  as  the  semi-iron 
or  the  wood.  It  costs  one- third  to  one-half  more  to  build 
in  the  first  place  and  is  more  subject  to  weather  changes, 
than  the  wood  or  the  semi-iron  house.  Glass  should  be  of 
double  strength.  The  smaller  single  strength  is  more 
imperfect  and  more  apt  to  break.-  It  is  well  to  use  as  large 
glass  as  possible,  since  on  account  of  fewer  sash  bars  more 
light  is  let  into  the  greenhouse.  Sizes  ranging  from  14x16 
to  20x24  inches  are  used. 

The  houses  should  be  well  painted  when  put  up  and 
frequently  painted  thereafter.  Provision  should  be  made 
for  plenty  of  ventilation  by  installing  some  simple  and 
effective  system.  The  size  of  the  house  will  vary  with  the 
use  it  is  put  to  and  the  amount  to  be  invested.  They  are 
constructed  from  18  to  30  feet  wide  and  may  be  of  indef- 
inite length.  The  crop  grown  will  determine  the  kind 
and  location  of  benches. 

Hot  water  is  perhaps  the  best  heat,  but  is  often  too 
expensive,  and  so  steam  is  used  very  generally. 

A  very  cheap  yet  serviceable  greenhouse  is  described 
in  "How  to  Make  the  Garden  Pay,"  and  the  publishers 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  105 

of  it  have  kindly  consented  to  the  use  of  it  here.  It  is 
called  the  "Model  Forcing  Pit."  Fig.  40  shows  a  cross 
section  of  this  house,  which  is  made  with  a  valley  in  the 
center,  so  that  in  point  of  fact  it  is  two  houses.  The  total 
width  of  both  houses  is  twenty-six  feet.  The  alleys  are 
dug  into  the  ground  in  each  house  eighteen  inches  wide 
and  eighteen  inches  deep  and  boarded  up  on  each  side. 
The  beds  on  each  side  are  four  feet  wide,  and  the  atten- 
dant can  cultivate  them  when  standing  in  the  alley.  The 
peak  of  the  greenhouse  is  only  four  and  a  half  feet  above  the 
ground  level  or  six  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  alleys.  The 
sides  are  only  one  foot  above  the  ground,  and  are  made 
of  plank  nailed  to  cedar 
posts  and  banked  upon 
the  out  side  with  horse 
manure  in  winter.  The 
roof  is  covered  with 
moveable  sashes  7  or 
lYi  feet  long  and  of  any 

convenientwidth.  Com-  Flg"  40"  Market  gardener>s 
mon  hotbed  sash  (3x6feet)  might  be  made  to  answer,  but 
sash  having  larger  glass  than  is  generally  put  in  them  is 
best.  Large  sized  glass  is  preferable,  12x16  inches  being  a 
good  size.  A  light  framework  for  the  sash  to  rest  on, 
similar  in  construction  to  that  shown  in  figure  of  a  green- 
house hotbed  is  necessary,  and  the  sashes  should  be 
screwed  down  and  ventilation  secured  in  the  same  way  as 
there  explained.  At  B,  where  the  two  roof  sections  meet, 
the  sashes  rest  on  a  plank  12  inches  wide  cut  out  ^by  8 
inches,  to  form  a  gutter  to  carry  off  water,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
41.  The  center  planks  rest  on  two  rows  of  2x3  inch  posts, 
two  and  a  half  feet  long  and  twelve  inches  above  the  beds ; 
these  posts  are  four  feet  apart  in  each  row. 


106  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

The  total  length  of  the  houses  here  described  may  vary 
according  to  circumstances.  The  house  from  which  this 
plan  is  taken  was  100  feet  long.  It  was  heated  with  a  second 
-hand  tubular  steam  boiler,  which  at  an  outside  tempera- 
ture of  zero  has  to  carry  about  five  pounds  pressure  to 
maintain  a  temperature  of  65°  or  70°  F.  Two  inch  pipes 

conduct  the  heat  from 
the  boiler,  one  line  of 
pipe  running  up  each 
side  of  the  house  and 
both  returning  through 
the  center  at  B,  back  to 
the  boiler.  The  furnace 
room  is  an  excavation 
10x12  feet  and  six  feet 
deep  at  the  north  end  of 

Fig.  41.     Valley  in  market  gardener's  green- 

house,  showing  the  way  the  sashbars  are  at-  the  HOUSC,  built  With  3. 
tached  to  the  plate. 

good  wall  and  roof.  The 

length  of  pipe  required  is  450  feet.  In  the  extreme  north- 
ern states,  more  pipe  radiating  surface  would  perhaps  be 
required  for  best  results . 

The  entire  cost  of  material  for  a  structure  of  these 
dimensions,  boiler  and  pipes  included,  amounts  to  about 
$450.  The  cost  of  steam  fitting  will  have  to  be  added  to 
this,  but  the  rest  of  the  work  can  be  done  by  any  man  of 
ordinary  intelligence.  Mr.  Greiner,  whose  description 
has  been  largely  followed  in  the  above,  says  that  he  likes  the 
pipes  all  above  ground,  as  here  recommended,  for  forcing 
vegetables;  but  if  wanted  for  starting  seedlings  and  for 
general  propagating  purposes  the  pipe  had  better  be  placed 
ten  to  twelve  inches  under  the  surface,  and  encased  in  an 
ordinary  three-inch  drain  tile  as  shown  at  D,  Fig.  40.  In 


GLASS  STRUCTURES 


107 


sections  where  fuel  is  high  priced  the  beds  might  be  partially 
heated  with  manure. 

Fig.  42  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  lean-to  house  that  is 
easily  adapted  to  most  locations,  but  especially  suited  to 
sidehills.  It  is  twenty  feet  wide  and  may  be  made  of  any 
length  desired.  It  should  have  a  boiler  room  on  one  end 
or  at  the  back  side,  as  is  most  convenient.  It  should,  of 
course,  extend  east  and  west  so  that  the  slope  will  be 
entirely  to  the  south  or  southeast.  The  walls  are  made  of 
cedar  posts  tightly  boarded  up  on  both  sides.  The  alleys 


Fig.  42.     Cross  section  of  lean-to  greenhouse. 

are  two  feet  wide  and  planked  on  each  side.  The  roof  is 
shown  made  of  permanent  sash  bars,  but  these  might  be 
made  of  movable  sash,  as  recommended  for  the  model 
forcing  pit.  One  ventilator  is  at  the  top  of  the  roof  and 
another  is  in  the  side  wall.  Two  purlins  extending  the 
length  of  the  house  are  supported  by  small  gas-pipe  posts. 
The  north  bench  is  four  feet  wide,  raised  three  feet  above 
the  alley,  and  is  filled  with  six  inches  of  soil,  or  it  may  be 
used  for  seed  boxes.  The  center  bench  is  eight  feet  wide 
and  may  be  solid  or  raised.  The  south  bench  is  shown 
filled  with  stable  manure,  and  is  practically  a  hotbed. 


108  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

The  same  treatment  may  also  be  given  the  center  bench. 
But  where  the  plan  is  followed  of  making  up  a  part  of  the 
benches  with  manure,  it  is  well  to  have  some  or  all  of  the 
roof  glazed  with  movable  sash,  to  facilitate  the  work  of 
putting  in  and  taking  out  the  manure.  The  use  of  stable  man- 
ure to  supplement  the  heating  apparatus  is  a  practice  that 
may  be  economically  followed  in  locations  where  coal  is 
high  priced  and  stable  manure  abundant.  The  heating 
arrangement  could  be  either  steam  of  hot  water  with  the 
flow  pipes  high  up  near  the  roof,  as  shown  at  A  and  B  and 
the  returns  at  C  and  D. 

Methods  of  Heating. — There  are  practically  three 
methods  of  heating  greenhouses;  viz.,  by  smoke  flue,  by 
hot  water,  and  by  steam.  Heating  by  smoke  flue  is 
described  under  the  head  of  fire  hotbeds.  It  has  the  merit 
of  being  easily  and  cheaply  constructed  by  anyone  having 
some  little  ingenuity.  Even  when  made  on  the  best  prin- 
ciples it  is  probably  more  wasteful  of  fuel  than  a  good 
steam  or  hot-water  apparatus,  but  where  inferior  fuel  can 
be  cheaply  obtained  a  smoke  flue  may  of  ten  be  used  to  ad  van- 
tage. 

As  for  the  relative  merits  of  hot-water  and  steam 
apparatus  for  heating,  it  is  probably  enough  to  say  that 
each  system  has  its  earnest  advocates  and  that  very  often 
there  is  little  advantage  in  favor  of  either.  Where  a  very 
large  heating  plant  must  be  used,  making  a  night  watchman 
necessary,  it  is  best  to  plan  for  steam  heating  at  low  pressure. 
For  small  greenhouses,  perhaps  a  hot-water  plant  is  best. 
It  costs  more  to  put  in  the  hot-water  apparatus,  because 
it  requires  more  radiating -surface,  since  the  pipes  are  not 
heated  as  hot  as  when  steam  is  used. 

Some  exclusive  merits  are  perhaps  justly  claimed  for 
a  combination  of  hot-water  and  steam,  in  which  system 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  109 

hot-water  is  used  for  heating  in  mild  weather,  and  in  severe 
weather  the  water  is  lowered  in  the  boiler,  a  regulator  is  put 
on,  and  the  pipes  are  filled  with  steam.  It  is  probable  that  an 
ordinary  tubular  steam  boiler  is  the  most  practical  kind 
to  use  either  for  a  hot-water  or  a  steam  heating  apparatus. 

The  amount  of  radiating  surface  necessary  for  heat- 
ing a  greenhouse  will  depend  on  the  temperature  to  be 
maintained  and  the  location  of  the  house.  In  a  general 
way,  one  should  figure  that  glass  houses  will  require  at 
least  four  times  as  much  radiating  surface  as  an  ordinary 
dwelling  house  similarly  situated  and  enclosing  the  same 
number  of  cubic  feet  of  space.  In  estimating  the  amount 
of  radiating  surface  necessary  it  is  always  advisable  to 
consult  some  practical  person  acquainted  with  such  problems. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MATTERS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  BUILD- 
ING AND  CARE  OF  HOTBEDS  AND  GREENHOUSES 

The  sash  for  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  should  be  about 
3x6  ft.  or  4x4  J/^  ft.  in  size;  the  glass  free  from  blisters,  of  double 
strength,  and  lapped  not  more  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch. 
If  lapped  more  than  this,  water  is  liable  to  freeze  the  laps  and 
crack  the  glass,  and  dirt  will  collect  between  the  glass.  It 
should  be  bedded  in  putty  and  nailed  in,  not  puttied  in. 
Common  window  sash  might  be  used  for  the  purpose  in  a 
small  way  and  temporarily,  but  it  is  not  strong  enough  to  last 
well;  and  besides  as  the  sash  bars  run  both  ways  and 
project  beyond  the  glass  the  rain  water  cannot  run 
off,  but  soaks  the  wood  and  leaks  through  into  the 
hotbed,  making  it  too  wet  in  places.  Also,  the  cross  bars 
in  common  window  sash  make  a  needless  extra  shadow 
that  is  objectionable.  Regular  hotbed  sash  is  made  with 
sash  bars  running  only  one  way  so  that  the  water 


110  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

falling  on  it  runs  off  easily  and  quickly.  Hotbed  sash  can 
be  bought  of  sash  manufacturers  or  may  be  made  at  home 
by  any  person  having  a  fair  amount  of  mechanical  ingenuity. 

Shutters  are  desirable  for  covering  the  glass  of  hotbeds 
and  cold  frames.  They  are  generally  made  of  second 
fencing,  matched  and  dressed,  and  in  size  of  the  same 
width  as  the  sash  but  about  six  inches  longer  with  a  six- 
inch  cleat  on  each  end. 

The  mats  are  often  made  of  straw,  but  cloth  and  burlap 
mats  are  sometimes  used.  Straw  mats  are  probably  as 
good  as  any  kind  and  are  easily  made  as  follows:  Make  a 
frame  of  2x4  inch  lumber  the  size  of  the  mats  desired; 
four  feet  wide  and  one  foot  longer  than  the  sash 
is  a  convenient  size.  Stand  this  frame  up  against  a 
wall  and  tightly  stretch  four  or  five  tarred  strings  eight  to 
ten  inches  apart  from  top  to  bottom  so  as  to  evenly  divide 
the  four  feet  of  width.  Have  as  many  balls  of  lighter 
tarred  strings  as  there  are  strings  fastened  to  the  frame, 
and  fasten  one  to  each  upright  string  at  the  bottom.  Com- 
mence at  the  lower  end  by  laying  a  wisp  of  straw,  cut  ends 
out,  on  the  string  at  the  bottom  and  fasten  it  there  by 
twisting  each  of  the  smaller  strings  once  around  the  straw 
and  the  upright  strings.  Next  put  on  another  wisp  of 
straw,  and  so  continue  until  the  frame  is  covered. 

Mats  thus  made  are  an  admirable  protection  against 
frost  and  are  far  better  than  shutters  alone.  The  advantage 
of  having  shutters  in  addition  to  the  mats  is  that  they  keep 
the  mats  from  getting  wet,  when  they  are  so  heavy  that  they 
break  easily  in  handling  or  they  freeze  solid  and  do  not  lie 
close  or  are  clumsy  to  handle.  Rye  straw  is  best  for  mats 
and  it  is  most  tough  and  durable  when  cut  partially  green. 
It  is  often  threshed  by  hand  so  that  the  straw  can  be  kept 
straight,  but  it  may  be  cleaned  by  a  threshing  machine  by 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  111 

holding  the  bundles  and  putting  the  heads  only  into  the 
machine. 

Ventilation  and  temperature  are  subjects  of  greatest 
importance  in  growing  plants  under  glass.  The  various 
classes  of  plants  require  different  degrees  of  heat  to  reach 
their  best  development.  For  instance,  lettuce,  radish, 
cress,  and  similar  plants  grow  best  at  a  low  temperature, 
say  about  75°  F.  in  the  day  and  40°  to  50°  at  night,  and 
may  even  be  frozen  without  serious  injury;  while  tomatoes, 
eggplants,  cucumbers,  and  melons  grow  best  at  the  higher 
temperature  of  85°  to  90°  in  the  day  and  60°  at  night.  If 
the  former  plants  are  kept  at  a  higher  temperature  than 
that  given  they  are  liable  to  become  diseased  and  infested 
with  insects.  This  is  especially  true  of  lettuce.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  high-temperature  plants  are  kept  much 
cooler  they  become  sickly  and  weak,  although  tomato  plants 
will  grow  in  quite  cool  temperature.  In  admitting  air  to 
glass  structures  care  should  be  taken  that  the  wind  does 
not  blow  in  on  the  plants.  This  is  generally  best  accom- 
plished in  hotbeds  and  frames  by  blocking  up  the  sash  at 
the  ends  or  sides  with  notched  pieces  of  wood. 

The  temperature  of  any  place,  unless  otherwise  specified, 
is  the  temperature  there  of  a  thermometer  in  the  shade.  A 
thermometer  with  the  full  sunlight  shining  on  it  will  record 
about  fifteen  degrees  higher  than  in  the  shade,  which  is  a 
point  always  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  ventilating. 

In  the  weather  of  early  spring  when  the  sun  is  getting 
high,  the  middle  of  the  days  will  be  very  warm  and  the 
nights  still  quite  cool  and  frosty.  It  is  then  that  a  beginner 
often  mal  es  the  mistake  of  leaving  the  sashes  of  his  hotbeds 
open  late  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  beds  cool  off  more  than  is 
desirable.  At  this  season  of  the  year  but  little  ventilation 
is  necessary,  and  frames  and  greenhouses  should  be  shut  up 


112  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

quite  early  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  covering  put  on  to 
retain  the  heat  as  soon  as  the  sun  is  low.  In  the  warm 
weather  of  later  spring,  the  sash  of  the  hotbeds  and  frames 
may  be  removed  in  the  day  and  kept  on  only  at  night.  No 
exact  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  ventilating,  but  it  is  quite 
a  simple  matter  to  learn  if  one  is  observant  and  uses  con- 
stant vigilance.  Many  persons  just  beginning  to  use  green- 
houses and  hotbeds  fail  to  get  best  results  from  them  because 
they  neglect  the  matter  of  ventilation.  On  cloudy  morn- 
ings it  may  not  be  needed,  but  if  the  sun  comes  through  the 
clouds  it  may  warm  the  house  or  the  beds  in  a  very  short 
time,  so  that  when  they  are  examined  the  whole  crop  has 
been  injured  by  the  heat.  This  is  a  most  common  cause  of 
failure  by  amateurs  in  charge  of  greenhouses  and  hotbeds. 

In  nature  the  night  temperature  in  which  plants  grow 
averages  from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  below  that  of  the 
day,  and  it  has  been  found  in  practice  that  when  this  con- 
dition is  reversed  the  plants  do  not  do  well.  This,  of 
course,  can  be  easily  avoided  by  a  little  forethought.  It  is 
a  bad  plan,  generally  speaking,  to  ventilate  much  in  cold 
weather  when  the  leaves  are  wet.  On  this  account  it  is 
best  to  water  early  in  the  day,  so  that  the  leaves  may  dry  off 
before  much  ventilation  is  required. 

Watering. — Plants  that  are  growing  slowly  do  not  need 
much  water,  while  those  that  are  growing  vigorously  need  a 
great  deal  of  it.  Growing  plants  need  water  whenever  they 
are  dry.  In  bright,  warm  weather  a  rapidly  growing  crop 
in  hotbed  or  cold  frame  will  need  watering  every  day,  while 
in  cloudy,  moist  weather  perhaps  no  water  will  be  needed  for 
a  week.  In  fact,  watering  in  cloudy  weather  seems  to 
encourage  disease.  When  applying  water  see  that  the  soil 
is  wet  as  far  down  as  the  roots  extend.  It  is  only  the 
beginner  who  just  wets  the  surface  soil  and  thinks  the  plants 


GLASS   STRUCTURES  113 

sufficiently  watered.  If  plants  are  wilting  for  want  of  water 
in  the  soil  give  it  to  them  no  matter  what  time  of  day,  but 
it  is  always  a  great  advantage  in  such  cases  to  shade  as  well 
as  water  them  if  the  sun  is  shining.  If  a  long  continued 
spell  of  cloudy  weather  is  followed  by  a  period  of  bright 
sunshine,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  plants  wilting  that 
have  plenty  of  water  in  the  soil  surrounding  them.  In 
such  a  case  it  may  be  desirable  to  shade  them  somewhat  in 
the  middle  of  the  day  until  they  get  used  to  the  sunlight. 

The  leaves  of  lettuce  and  some  other  plants  are  liable  to 
burn  if  watered  when  the  sun  is  shining  brightly  on  them. 

In  cold  weather  it  is  a  poor  plan  to  water  most  of  our 
plants  at  night,  since  the  water  will  cool  off  the  air,  and  the 
plants  may  be  checked  in  growth;  but  in  hot  weather  the 
reverse  is  true  and  plants  seem  to  get  more  benefit  from  a 
good  soaking  in  the  evening,  when  they  can  have  all  night 
to  take  the  water  in,  than  if  it  is  applied  in  the  morning  and 
followed  by  a  hot  sun.  In  watering  hotbeds  in  very  cold 
weather  use  a  fine  rose  sprinkler  and,  if  practicable,  tepid 
water.  At  other  seasons  good  lake  or  cistern  water  is  per- 
fectly safe,  and  is  generally  used  by  commercial  growers  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  Avoid  getting  the  soil  water- 
soaked. 

The  soil  should  vary  somewhat  in  texture  for  different 
plants,  but  all  garden  vegetables  will  flourish  in  much  the 
same  kind  of  soil.  For  use  in  glass  structures  a  light,  friable, 
rich  sandy  loam  is  best.  This  is  easily  obtained  when  one 
has  been  using  hotbeds,  by  mixing  some  of  the  old  rotted 
manure  which  has  been  used  for  heating  them  the  preceding 
year  with  any  good  sandy  loam.  If  sandy  loam  cannot  be 
had,  clay  loam  may  be  used  and  sand  added  to  the  mixture. 
The  manure  from  old  hotbeds  is  especially  good  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  should  form  about  one-third  of  the  bulk  of  the  soil. 


114  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Boxes. — In  the  case  of  many  plants  having  small  seeds, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  start  them  in  boxes  instead  of  growing 
them  in  beds,  on  account  of  the  better  care  that  may  thus 
be  given  them.  When  plants  are  to  be  marketed  it  is  often 
best  to  grow  them  in  the  boxes  in  which  they  are  to  be  sold. 
Frequently,  too,  where  plants  are  started  in  the  greenhouse 
and  then  moved  to  the  open  ground  it  is  most  convenient  to 
have  them  in  boxes.  For  this  purpose  boxes  should  be 
about  four  inches  deep  and  the  size  of  a  soap  or  cracker  box, 
which  may  be  cut  down  for  the  purpose  and  thus  make  very 
cheap  boxes.  Of  course  where  the  market  demands  a  cer- 
tain number  of  plants  in  boxes,  they  will  have  to  be  made 
for  the  purpose.  The  lumber  for  these  can  be  obtained  at 
any  box  factory,  and  what  would  perhaps  be  otherwise  idle 
moments  may  be  used  in  putting  it  together  at  a  trifling 
expense. 

Substitutes  for  Glass. — Frames  of  the  same  size  as  hot- 
bed sash  are  sometimes  covered  with  prepared  cloth  or 
paper  substitutes  for  glass.  Such  covering,  however,  will 
not  allow  the  sun's  rays  to  penetrate  it  easily  nor  is  it  so 
effective  in  preventing  radiation  of  the  heat  as  glass, 
but  under  some  circumstances  it  may  be  very  desirable. 
Sash  thus  covered  may  be  often  be  used  to  advantage  in 
the  latter  part  of  spring  by  alternating  it  on  the  frames 
and  thus  doubling  the  amount  of  sash  at  small  expense. 
Or  they  may  be  used  in  the  warm  weather  of  spring 
when  the  sash  needs  to  be  removed  entirely  in  the  middle  of 
the  day.  They  are  excellent  for  covering  beds  filled  with 
recently  transplanted  crops,  since  the  light  is  less  intense 
and  evaporation  less  under  them  than  under  glass. 

A  convenient  way  of  forming  these  sashes  is  to  make 
frames  without  sash  bars  but  with  one  or  two  wires  stretch- 
ed across  them  to  support  the  cloth  or  paper  covering. 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  115 

Unbleached  heavy  cotton  cloth  may  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  the  material  for  dressing  it  should  be  made  of 
three  pints  pale  linseed  oil,  one  ounce  acetate  of  lead,  and 
four  ounces  white  resin.  Grind  the  acetate  in  a  little  oil,  and 
then  add  the  resin  and  the  rest  of  the  oil.  Melt  in  an  iron 
kettle  over  a  gentle  fire  until  well  mixed,  and  apply  warm 
to  the  cloth.  When  paper  is  used  it  should  be  what  is 
known  as  manila  wrapping  paper.  Paste  this  firmly  and 
tightly  on  the  frame  with  fresh  flour  paste.  Dry  in  a  warm 
place.  Then  wipe  the  whole  of  the  paper  with  a  damp 
sponge  to  cause  it  to  stretch  evenly.  Dry  it  again,  and 
apply  boiled  linseed  oil  to  both  sides  of  it,  and  dry  in  a  warm 
place.  Use  linseed  oil  that  is  free  from  cotton-seed  oil. 

Shading  the  Glass. — In  the  hot  weather  of  late  spring 
or  summer  the  sunlight  is  too  warm  for  many  plants  in  the 
greenhouse,  and  it  is  customary  to  shade  them.  The 
amount  of  shade  necessary  will  depend  somewhat  on 
circumstances.  This  shade  may  consist  of  lath  screens 
laid  on  the  roof,  but  more  commonly  it  is  given  by  sprink- 
ling the  glass  on  the  outside  with  a  wash  made  of  white 
lead  and  gasoline,  put  on  with  a  spray  pump  or  syringe. 
This  is  easily  and  cheaply  done.  It  will  generally  come  off 
by  autumn  or  may  be  rubbed  off  with  a  coarse  rag  or  brush. 
Whitewash  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose  but  it  is  too 
easily  washed  off  by  heavy  rains  to  be  desirable. 

SOME   THINGS   TO    REMEMBER    IN    CONNECTION    WITH 
BUILDING  GLASS  HOUSES  FOR  PLANTS 

(1)  All  joints  should   be  made  tight  and   so  far  as 
possible  so  placed  that  water  will  not  lodge  in  them. 

(2)  There  should  be  just  as  much  room  in  the  beds 
and  as  little  in  the  paths  as  possible. 


116  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

(3)  The  glass  should  be  as  close  to  the  beds  as  it  can  be 
and  allow  room  to  manage  the  crops  grown  in  them.     It 
should  be  of  larger  size  for  greenhouses  than  for  hotbeds 
and  in  size  not  smaller  than  10x12  inches,  laid  on  sash  bars 
11  inches  apart.     The  larger  the  glass  the  better.     There 
is  not  so  much  breakage  in  large  as  in  small  glass. 

(4)  A  permanent  water  supply  is  very  desirable. 

(5)  The  glass  should  be  of  good  quality,  free  from 
blisters,  bad  waves,  or  other  imperfections,  and  be  what  is 
known  as  double-strength  glass. 

(6)  The  heating  arrangements  should  be  sufficient  to 
heat  the  house  easily  in  coldest  weather;  in  other  words, 
it  should  be  more  than  sufficient  to  maintain  the  proper 
temperature  if  crowded. 

(7)  Having  the  heating  plant  insufficient  and    then 
crowding  it   in   severe  weather,  injures  the  heating  plant 
and  wastes  fuel  besides  being  a  trial  of  patience. 

(8)  The  ventilators  should  be  large  and  carefully  fitted 
so  they  will  close  tightly.     When  in  the  roof  they  should 
be  open  at  the  top.     If  they  open  at  the  bottom  the  moisture 
that  condenses  on  the  glass  forms  an  ice  ridge  on  them  in 
cold  weather  and  prevents  their  shutting  tightly. 

(9)  The  smaller  the  sash  bars  and  framing  material  in 
the  roof  the  more  sunlight  can  reach  the  crop. 

(10)  The  greenhouse  roof  may  be  covered  with  movable 
sash,  but  it  is  generally  found  most  desirable  to  use  per- 
manent sash  bars.     Where  severe  hailstorms  are  frequent  it 
might  be  well  to  use  movable  sash  and  take  them  off  in 
the  summer,  but  such  places  are  rare  exceptions.     It  re- 
quires a  very  severe  hailstorm  to  break  double  strength 
glass,  when  at  an  angle,  as  in  a  roof,  and  practically  there 
is  little  risk  from  this  source. 


GLASS  STRUCTURES  117 

(11)  In  the  framing  of  greenhouses,  for  instance,  for 
purlins  and  posts  gas  pipe  can  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
It  is  cheap  and  durable. 

(12)  All  joints  should   be  painted  before  being  put 
together;  all  wood  and  iron  work   should    be   kept   well 
painted. 

(13)  If  putty  is  used  in  glazing  the  glass  it  should  be 
bedded  in  it  and  nailed  in,  in  this  way:  paint  the  sash  bars, 
and  then  run  a  thin  coat  of  putty  along  them ;  bed  the  glass 
in  it,  commencing  at  the  bottom  of  the  sash  and  lapping 
the  glass  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  on  the  same  plan  that 
shingles  are  laid  on  a  roof.     Fasten  the  glass  with  round 
three-quarter  inch  brads,  using  four  to  each  glass ;  put  more 
liquid  putty  along  the  glass  next  to  the  sash  bars  and 
smooth  it  off  with  a  knife  even  with  the  glass. 

(14)  Liquid  putty  is  made  by  mixing  one-third  boiled 
linseed  oil,  one- third  white  lead,  and  one- third   common 
putty.     If  too  thick,  as  may  be  the  case  in  cold  weather, 
add  a  little  turpentine  or  benzine.     It  may  be  applied  with 
a  brush,  but  the  best  way  is  to  put  it  on  with  a  bulb  bought 
for  the  purpose ;  or  a  bulb  may  be  made  with  leather,  having 
a  large  quill  through  which  to  squeeze  the  putty.     In  the 
latter  case  there  must  be  a  hole  in  the  side  or  end  by  which 
the  bulb  is  filled  and  which  may  be  drawn  together  by  a 
string. 

(15)  Perhaps  the  most  popular  way  of  setting  glass  in 
greenhouses  at  present  is  by  using  square  glass  and  butting 
the  ends  together.     To  do  this  to  best  advantage,  no  nails 
or  putty  are  used  and  a  special  wooden  cap  is  put  on  the 
sash  bar  which  holds  the  glass  in  place.     If  desired  to  have 
the  glass  tight,  the  abutting  edges  may  be  just  touched 
with  white  lead  before  being  put  together.     This  makes  a 
very  satisfactory  roof. 


118  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  use  and  construction  of  a  cold  frame. 

2.  Discuss  the  use  and  construction  of  a  hotbed. 

3.  Discuss  the  use  and  construction  of  a  fire  hotbed. 

4.  Discuss  the  use  and  construction  of  a  greenhouse. 

5.  How  should  the  ventilation  and  temperature  be  regulated 
for  plants  grown  under  glass? 

6.  How  should  plants  be  watered? 

7.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  plants  growing  under  glass? 

8.  What  is  a  good  method  of  starting  plants  in  a  greenhouse? 

9.  What  may  be  substituted  for  glass  on  hotbed  sashes? 

10.     Name  ten  important  things  to  be  remembered  in  building 
glass  houses  for  plants. 


CHAPTER  VII 
INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  VEGETABLES 

IN  this  chapter  only  the  more  common  insects  infesting 
garden  vegetables  are  mentioned.  There  are  many  others 
that  almost  yearly  cause  some  damage  to  our  crops  and 
which  in  occasional  years  cause  serious  loss.  But  to  discuss 
them  would  require  more  space  than  can  be  afforded  here. 

Classes. — In  dealing  with  insect  pests  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  biting  insects,  such  as  potato  beetles  and 
blister  beetles,  are  generally  most  surely  destroyed  by 
arsenical  poisons,  such  as  Paris  green;  while  sucking  insects, 
such  as  plant  lice  and  chinch  bugs,  are  not  affected  by  them 
but  are  most  readily  destroyed  by  external  applications,  as 
tobacco  water  and  kerosene  emulsion. 

Natural  Enemies. — We  should  also  remember  that  in 
our  war  upon  injurious  insects  we  have  the  support  of 
most  of  the  birds  and  of  the  moles  and  shrews,  and  these 
should  be  protected  as  the  friends  of  man  rather  than  be 
destroyed,  as  is  too  often  the  case  among  thoughtless  or 
ignorant  people.  Moles  and  shrews  are  especially  useful, 
since  they  work  under  ground  and  feed  largely  on  various 
insects  that  are  difficult  to  destroy  on  account  of  their 
living  in  the  soil.  It  is  perhaps  no  exaggeration  to  say 
that  the  shrew  (often  called  mole)  will  eat  its  weight  of 
insects  each  day.  Insects  are  also  subject  to  attacks  of 
parasites  or  of  fungous  and  other  diseases,  which  destroy 
them  in  large  numbers  and  often  in  a  very  short  time. 

-When  insects  appear  in  small  numbers,  hand  picking 
is  often  a  very  efficient  remedy,  but  when  they  become 


120  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

very  abundant  some  other  method  of  destroying  them 
must  be  employed. 

INSECTICIDES  AND  OTHER  INSECT  DESTROYERS 

Pyrethrum  is  the  insect  powder  of  the  stores.  It  is 
made  by  grinding  the  flowers  of  the  pyrethrum  plant,  which 
closely  resembles  the  common  oxeye  daisy.  It  is  not 
poisonous  to  higher  organized  animals  although  very 
destructive  to  many  kinds  of  insects.  It  is  frequently 
adulterated  and  can  seldom  be  obtained  of  good  quality. 
It  also  deteriorates  very  quickly  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
On  these  accounts  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  satisfactory 
results  from  powder  obtained  at  the  stores.  When  used 
it  should  be  diluted  with  about  five  times  its  bulk  of  flour, 
with'  which  it  should  be  kept  in  a  tight  vessel  for  at  least 
twenty-four  hours  before  using,  in  order  to  get  best  results. 
When  thus  confined  the  flour  takes  up  the  poisonous  prin- 
ciple of  the  pyrethrum.  It  should  always  be  kept  in  an 
air-tight  receptacle. 

Paris  green  is  a  refuse  product  composed  of  arsenious 
acid  and  copper  and  is  probably  as  safe  as  any  arsenic  com- 
pound. It  is  only  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  is 
used  with  water  at  the  rate  of  one!  pound  to  one  hundred 
or  more  gallons  of  water;  it  is  also  used  mixed  with  dry 
substances,  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  fifty  pounds  of 
flour  or  one  hundred  pounds  of  land  plaster,  road  dust  or 
sifted  coal  ashes.  In  using  it  with  water  the  addition  of 
an  equal  amount  of  milk  of  lime  often  prevents  injury 
to  leaves.  The  mixture  should  be  constantly  agitated  to 
insure  applying  a  mixture  of  even  strength. 

Tobacco  is  very  useful  for  destroying  some  kinds  of 
insects  in  the  garden  and  greenhouse.  It  is  especially 
effective  against  plant  lice  and  soft-skinned  hairless  cater- 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS  121 

pillars.  Where  smoke  from  it  can  be  confined  around 
the  plants,  as  in  greenhouses  and  hotbeds,  it  is  common 
to  use  it  in  a  smudge,  but  when  thus  used  it  should  be 
kept  from  blazing.  It  is  also  used  in  powdered  form  to 
keep  off  some  insects.  A  more  common  and  effective  way 
of  using  it  is  as  a  decoction  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one  pound 
of  tobacco  stems,  leaves,  or  dust  to  two  gallons  of  water. 
The  tobacco  should  be  boiled  in  the  water  for  twenty 
minutes.  When  cold  the  decoction  should  be  applied 
undiluted,  using  a  syringe,  spray,  or  other  means  of  appli- 
cation. The  decoction  will  not  keep  more  than  a  few  days 
without  spoiling.  Tobacco  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  as 
well  as  insecticide.  Many  forms  of  tobacco  preparations 
are  on  the  market,  among  which  nicofume  and  nicotocide 
are  used  for  aphis  of  various  kinds. 

Arsenate  of  Lead. — Arsenate  of  lead  is  the  best  arsenious 
poison  to  apply,  because  it  does  not  hurt  the  foliage  of 
plants,  stays  in  suspension  longer,  and  adheres  to  foliage 
better,  sometimes  remaining  on  the  foliage  in  poisonous 
amounts  from  June  to  late  in  the  fall. 

The  usual  amount  applied  is  three  pounds  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water.  Five  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  are  some- 
times used  for  insects  hard  to  poison.  It  comes  in  a  paste 
form  which  is  easily  mixed  with  water.  Arsenate  of  lead 
may  often  be  applied  to  advantage  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
or  other  fungicides. 

Hellebore. — White  hellebore  is  a  common  insecticide 
for  chewing  insects.  It  is  not  a  lasting  poison,  since  it 
loses  its  poisonous  quality  soon  after  exposure  to  the  air. 
It  is  used  for  cabbage  and  currant  worms.  Hellebore  may 
be  dusted  on  when  the  plants  are  moist,  or  applied  in  water 
at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  two  ounces  of  powder  to  two 
gallons  of  water. 


122  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

"Sticker." — Difficulty  is  found  sometimes  in  making 
poisons  stay  on  a  plant  as  desired.  This  is  overcome  by 
boiling  together  two  pounds  of  resin,  one  pound  of  sal  soda, 
and  one  gallon  of  water  for  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half 
and  adding  to  every  one  hundred  gallons  of  spray  material. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  a  valuble  insecticide.  It  kills  by 
contact  and  is  of  greatest  importance  for  destroying  sucking 
insects,  such  as  lice,  scale  insects  and  soft  caterpillars,  but 
also  kills  many  biting  insects.  It  is  made  as  follows: — 

Kerosene  oil,  2  gallons,  67  per  cent;  common  soap,  or 
whale  oil  soap,  Y^  pound,  33  per  cent. 

Two  pounds  of  soft  soap  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
soap  recommended. 

Dissolve  the  soap  over  a  brisk  fire,  remove,  and  add  the 
kerosene  while  the  water  is  hot.  Churn  the  mixture  or  stir 
rapidly  until  a  cream-like  emulsion  is  secured.  If  well  made 
the  kerosene  will  not  separate  but,  on  cooling,  the  emulsion 
will  thicken  into  a  jelly-like  paste  that  adheres  without 
oiliness  to  the  surface  of  glass.  Soft  water  will  give  far 
better  results  than  hard  water  for  making  kerosene  emulsion, 
and  soap  that  is  made  with  potash  or  soda  lye,  such  as 
home-made  soap,  is  far  better  than  most  of  the  soaps  of  the 
stores,  which  do  not  emulsify  easily.  For  plant  lice,  dilute 
the  emulsion  recommended  with  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
parts  of  cold  water.  The  strength  of  the  application  will 
necessarily  depend  on  the  insects  to  which  it  is  to  be  ap- 
plied. For  such  insects  as  soft-skinned  caterpillars  the 
emulsion  should  be  diluted  with  not  more  than  ten  parts  of 
water. 

Kerosene  and  milk  emulsion  may  be  used  as  follows  :— 

Kerosene, 2  gallons 

Sour  milk 1  gallon 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS  123 

These  readily  form  an  emulsion  when  thoroughly 
churned  together.  It  should  be  used  the  same  as  other 
soap  and  kerosene  emulsions  mentioned.  Sweet  milk  does 
not  emulsify  readily,  but  if  a  little  sour  or  even  if  very  sour 
it  unites  easily  with  the  kerosene.  This  is  the  best  emulsion 
where  the  water  is  very  hard. 

Carbon  bisulphide  is  a  very  inflammable  material  which 
has  a  disagreeable  odor  and  which  readily  vaporizes.  It 
should  be  handled  with  the  same  precaution  as  gasoline, 
which  resembles  it  in  appearance.  The  fumes  that  it  gives 
off  are  very  heavy  and  are  poisonous  to  animal  life  when 
confined  with  it.  On  account  of  these  properties  it  is  used 
for  killing  weevils  in  grain  or  peas,  beans,  and  other  seeds, 
and  for  killing  gophers,  mice,  or  other  creatures  in  their 
holes.  The  method  of  using  it  for  grain  weevils  is  to  fill 
a  barrel  or  other  tight  receptacle  nearly  full  of  seed ;  then 
sprinkle  on  an  ounce  of  the  liquid  for  each  one  hundred 
pounds  of  seed  and  cover  the  vessel  tightly  for  several  hours. 
It  does  not  hurt  the  grain,  which  is  just  as  good  and  looks  as 
nice  as  ever  after  being  treated.  The  germinating  qualities 
of  the  seed  are  not  injured  by  this  treatment.  When 
used  for  killing  moles,  gophers,  and  mice,  the  material 
should  be  put  on  cotton  or  other  absorbent  and  placed  in 
their  holes,  which  should  then  be  closed  with  earth. 

Catching  Insects  by  Light  at  Night. — By  suspending  a 
lantern  at  night  over  a  tub  of  water  having  its  surface 
coated  with  kerosene,  many  night-flying  insects  can  be 
destroyed.  Among  those  that  can  be  caught  in  this  way 
are  cut-worm  moths,  the  clicking  beetle  (which  is  the 
mature  form  of  the  wire  worm),  and  the  May  beetle  (which 
is  the  mature  form  of  the  white  grub).  When  these  insects 
become  especially  abundant,  this  method  of  catching  them 
is  worthy  of  trial.  The  objections  to  it  are:  (1)  It  is  the 


124  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

larvae  and  not  the  flying  form  of  these  insects  that  do 
serious  injury.  (2)  Few  persons  are  so  far  sighted  that 
they  can  be  persuaded  to  attack  insect  enemies  until  they 
are  suffering  from  their  ravages,  and  the  benefits  of  this 
method  will  not  be  felt  until  perhaps  the  following  year. 
(3)  The  observations  of  Dr.  Otto  Lugger  show  that  insects 
have  generally  laid  their  eggs  before  they  fly  much,  and 
only  the  male  insects  of  some  species  fly,  and  the  females  are 
nearly  or  quite  wingless.  It  is  obvious  that  in  such  cases 
catching  the  flying  insects  will  do  little  if  any  good. 

Applications  of  Insecticides. — In  applying  insecticides  it 
is  generally  important  to  begin  their  use  as  soon  as  the 
insects  appear  and  not  wait  until  the  plants  have  been 
weakened  and  set  back  by  their  attacks.  There  are  many 
and  various  machines  for  distributing  insecticides.  The 
machine  best  adapted  to  this  purpose  will  depend  much  on 
the  insecticide  used  and  the  extent  of  the  operations  con- 
templated. For  applying  liquid  compounds  some  of  the 
many  forms  of  spray  pumps  will  be  found  best.  For  the 
small  garden  where  there  is  a  variety  of  crops  grown,  per- 
haps what  is  known  as  the  knapsack  spray  pump  is  as  con- 
venient as  any  general-purpose  machine.  Where  potatoes 
are  grown  on  a  large  scale  some  special  spray  pump  that  can 
be  geared  to  the  wheels  of  a  wagon  may  often  be  the  best  to 
use.  Where  insecticides  are  used  in  powder  form,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  scatter  them  on  the  plants  through  a  coarse 
linen  bag  or  fine  wire  cloth.  When  such  material  needs  to 
be  ejected  with  force,  a  fan  or  bellows  may  be  used.  It  is 
always  best  to  use  poisons  in  a  liquid  form  when  practicable, 
since  it  is  the  most  economical  and  effective  method  of 
applying  them.  No  insecticide  should  ever  be  used  in  a 
large  way  until  it  has  been  tried  on  a  small  scale  to  see  what 
its  effect  will  be  on  the  crop  to  be  treated,  since  plants  may 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


125 


be  more  susceptible  at  one  time  than  another  to  applica- 
tions of  this  nature. 

COMMON  GARDEN  INSECTS  AND  METHODS  OF  DESTROY- 
ING THEM 

The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle  (Doryphora  decemlineata) . 
— The  Coloradp  potato  beetle  is  so  common  and  so  well 
known  by  every  farmer  and 
gardener  in  this  country  that 
it  needs  no  description  here. 
It  came  originally  from  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region, 
where  it  fed  on  the  native 
sandbur  (Solanum  rostratum), 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the 
potato;  but  when  this  insect 
came  to  know  the  cultivated 
potato  it  preferred  it  to  its 
original  food  and  has  since 
become  a  very  dangerous  pest 
to  this  vegetable.  The  orange- 
colored  eggs,  varying  in  num- 
ber from  a  dozen  to  fifty,  are 
generally  laid  on  the  under  side 
of  the  potato  leaf.  They 
hatch  in  about  a  week  into 
sluggish  larvae,  which  feed 
upon  the  leaves,  never  leaving 
a  plant  until  all  the  leaves  are  gone.  They  feed  to  some 
extent  upon  tomatoes  and  eggplants.  When  fully  developed 
the  larvae  descend  to  the  ground,  where  they  pupate, 
emerging  as  perfect  beetles.  There  are  three  broods  each 
season.  The  beetles  winter  over  in  potato  fields. 


Fig.  43.     The  Colorado  potato  beetle 
in  all  stages. 


126  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Remedies. — The  number  of  these  pests  varies  greatly 
from  year  to  year.  The  chief  remedies  are  arsenical  poisons 
applied  to  the  foliage.  For  this  purpose  Paris  green  is 
mostly  used,  and  arsenic  of  lead  to  some  extent.  The 
method  of  applying  them  varies  much.  The  quantity  of 
Paris  green  to  use  is  one  pound  per  acre  for  each  applica- 
tion in  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  gallons  of  water  or 
Bordeaux  mixture.  The  agitation  must  be  thorough,  to 
prevent  the  Paris  green  from  settling.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
add  freshly  slaked  lime  to  the  Paris  green  mixture  at  the 
rate  of  one  to  two  pounds  of  stone  lime  to  one  pound  of 
Paris  green. 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  instead  of  Paris  green.  It 
has  the  advantage  of  sticking  much  better  in  rainy  weather 
and  of  being  less  liable  to  burn  the  foliage.  It  must  be 
used  at  the  rate  of  five  or  six  pounds  per  acre  for  each  appli- 
cation, in  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  gallons  of  water 
or  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  usually  comes  on  the  market  in  a 
paste  form.  It  is  more  costly  to  use  than  Paris  green. 
Liquid  mixtures  may  be  applied  with  a  watering  pot  or 
brush  broom,  but  a  spray  pump  is  most  economical,  and 
on  large  areas  a  large  one-  or  two-horse  outfit  is  necessary. 

Paris  green  may  be  safely  applied  when  mixed  with 
twenty-five  times  its  bulk  of  flour,  sifted  ashes,  or  road  dust, 
or  mixed  with  twenty-five  pounds  of  land  plaster.  Other 
poisons  than  the  above  should  be  used  with  caution. 

It  is  very  important  to  apply  the  poison  as  soon  as  the 
young  larvae  can  be  seen  on  the  leaves,  for  they  are  more 
easily  killed  at  this  stage,  requiring  about  a  third  less  poison 
than  later  on.  Plants  injured  when  young  are  severely  set 
back. 

Imported  and  Native  Cabbage  Worms  (Pieris  sp.). — 
The  imported  cabbage  worm  resembles  our  native  species, 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


127 


and  both  of  them  are  very  destructive  to  cabbage,  turnip, 
cauliflower,  and  similar  vegetables,  and  to  such  flowering 
plants  as  mignonette,  stocks,  and  nasturtiums.  They  feed 
on  the  leaves  and  will  often  destroy  the  cabbage  crop  unless 
preventive  measures  are  taken.  The  worms  of  the  imported 
species  are  green  in  color,  while  our  native  species  are  bluish 
with  yellow  stripes.  The  butterflies  of  both  species  are 
much  alike.  They  are  generally  white  with  indefinite 
black  marks  above  and  yellow  or  green  markings  on  the 
under  side,  and  are  commonly  seen  flitting  over  fields  of 


Fig.  44.     The  cabbage  worm;  a,  larva;  b,  chrysalis;  c,  adult  male;  d,  adult  female. 

cabbage  or  of  other  of  its  food  plants  during  the  day  time. 
The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long. 
The  winter  is  passed  in  the  chrysalis  stage  hidden  away  in 
sheltered  places,  and  from  these  the  adult  butterfly  emerges 
in  the  spring  and  lays  her  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves,  where  they  hatch  in  about  one  week.  There  are 
several  broods  in  a  season. 

Remedies. — Pyrethrum  powder  mixed  with  five  times 
its  bulk  of  flour  and  dusted  into  the  cabbage  just  at  night- 


128  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

fall  is  a  good  remedy.  The  flour  should  be  mixed  with  the 
pyrethrum  overnight.  In  a  small  way  hand  picking  may  be 
successfully  resorted  to.  If  the  worms  are  troublesome 
where  cabbage  is  grown  on  a  large  scale  it  is  customary  to 
use  arsenical  poison  mixed  with  flour,- as  recommended  for 
the  potato  bug.  The  poison  cannot  be  applied  in  water, 
as  it  will  not  stick  to  the  leaves.  These  poisons,  it  is  evi- 
dent to  anyone,  can  be  safely  applied  before  the  plants 
commence  to  head,  and  recent  careful  trials  and  analyses 
of  cabbage  thus  treated  with  Paris  green  show  there  is 
very  little  danger  in  using  it  at  any  stage  of  the  plants.  It 
is  the  simplest  of  remedies  and  effective,  yet  not  dangerous. 
There  are  parasites  that  attack  and  kill  the  worms  and 
chrysalises,  and  Dr.  Lugger  has  shown  clearly  that  they 
sometimes  may  be  destroyed  very  rapidly  by  disease  as 
well  as  by  insect  parasites.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  have 
nearly  all  these  worms  die  in  the  latter  part  of  any  season 
from  one  or  both  of  thes^  causes. 

Cabbage  Plusia  (Phisia  brassicae) . — The  cabbage  plusia 
eats  irregular  holes  in  the  leaves,  and  burrows  into  the  heads 
of  the  cabbage.  The  parent  insect  is  a  moth  of  a  dark-gray 
color  distinguished  by  a  silver  mark  on  each  wing.  The 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  singly  or  in 
clusters.  They  soon  hatch  into  pale-green  translucent 
worms,  marked  with  paler  longitudinal  stripes  on  the  back 
and  sides.  When  full  grown  these  worms  are  about  two 
inches  long.  They  resemble  span  worms  in  their  mode  of 
locomotion,  hence  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  cab- 
bage worm.  The  full-grown  caterpillar  spins  a  cocoon, 
generally  on  the  under  side  of  the  cabbage  leaf,  in  which  it 
undergoes  its  changes.  The  insect  winters  over  in  the 
pupal  state.  The  remedies  for  this  pest  are  the  same  as 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


129 


those  recommended  for  cabbage  worms,  and  it  is  also  subject 
to  diseases  and  parasites. 

Wire  Worms  or  Drill  Worms  (Elater). — Wire  worms 
cause  damage  by  boring  into  potatoes  and  some  seeds  in 
the  ground.  They  are  the  larvae  of  a  snapping  or  clicking 
beetle,  so  called  from  the  ease  with  which,  if  laid  on  their 
backs,  they  spring  into  the  air  with  a  clicking  noise.  The 
larvae  are  slender  wirelike  worms  having  a  glassy,  tough 
skin  of  a  yellowish  or  brownish  color.  The  larval  stage  lasts 
for  two  and  possibly  five  years;  it  is  therefore  no  small  job  to 


Fig.  45.     Snapping  beetle,  OP  wire  worm,  with  larvae. 

clear  a  piece  of  land  badly  infested  with  the  pest.  Natu- 
rally, wire  worms  live  in  grass  land  where  the  harm  they  do  is 
not  apparent,  but  when  such  land  is  planted  to  corn  or  pota- 
toes and  the  worms  are  thus  deprived  of  their  natural  food 
they  may  become  very  troublesome. 

Remedies. — Late  fall  plowing  is  desirable  for  land 
infested  with  wire  worms,  since  it  exposes  and  thus  kills  all 
that  are  ready  to  pupate.  By  clean  summer  fallowing  the 
land  one  season  the  worms  are  starved  out,  if  no  plants  what- 
ever are  permitted  to  grow  on  it. 


130  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Cut-worms  (Agrotis  sp.). — Cut- worms  often  cause  seri- 
ous injury  by  eating  vegetable  plants.  They  are  generally 
most  injurious  while  the  plants  are  small,  when  they  often 
bite  off  young  cabbage,  bean,  corn,  or  other  plants  close  to 
or  just  under  the  ground  and  thus  destroy  them.  Their 
work  is  most  perceptible  in  the  spring,  on  account  of  the 
small  amount  of  growing  vegetation  at  that  time,  yet  they 
also  work  in  the  autumn.  True  cut-worms  are  the  larvae  of 
several  night-fly  ing  moths  which  appear  late  in  summer.  The 
female  deposits  her  eggs  late  in  the  summer.  These  soon 
hatch  into  worms  which  enter  the  ground  and  live  near  the 
surface  on  the  tender  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants  until  the 


Fig.  46.     Cut-worm  and  moth. 

approach  of  cold  weather.  They  then  descend  deeper  into 
the  ground  and  remain  torpid  until  spring,  when  they  come 
to  the  surface  'and  again  commence  their  depredations. 
Cut- worms,  when  full  grown,  are  from  one  and  a  quarter  to 
one  and  three-quarter  inches  long  and  rather  large  in  diam- 
eter as  compared  with  the  length.  Their  skin  is  of  some 
dull  color,  smooth,  often  with  dull  stripes  and  bands. 

Remedies. — Cut-worms  are  most  injurious  in  sod  land 
or  land  on  which  weeds  have  been  permitted  to  grow  in 
autumn,  or  in  land  adjacent  thereto.  They  are  not  likely 
to  winter  over  on  any  land  that  is  kept  free  from  weeds  and 
grass  in  autumn,  since  there  is  no  food  for  them  in  such 
places.  The  worms  feed  almost  entirely  by  night  and  hide 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS  131 

during  the  day  time  under  clods  or  just  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground  near  where  they  have  been  working.  In  a 
small  way  they  may  be  dug  out  and  destroyed,  but  in  fields 
and  on  a  large  scale  this  is  impossible,  and  a  good  remedy  is  to 
scatter  bait  of  poisoned  clover  through  the  fields.  This  is 
easily  prepared  by  dipping  clover  into  Paris  green  and 
water.  A  dough  made  of  bran  and  Paris  green  sprinkled 
about  the  plants  will  often  be  found  very  satisfactory  in 
destroying  cut-worms,  and  sometimes  will  work  even  better 
than  clover  for  this  purpose.  Where  cut-worms  are  abun- 
dant a  larger  amount  than  usual  of  seed  should  be  planted 
that  a  good  stand  may  be  secured  even  if  the  worms  do  get 
some  of  it. 

When  plants  such  as  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  tomatoes 
are  planted  out,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  wrap  the  plants  with 
pieces  of  stout  paper  extending  about  an  inch  below  and 
three  inches  above  the  ground.  When  boxes  or  tomato 
cans  are  set  around  plants  for  shade,  they  afford  a  good  pro- 
tection from  this  pest.  Protection  from  cut-worms  to 
hills  of  melons,  cucumbers,  and  similar  plants  may  be  given 
by  pieces  of  pasteboard  or  tin.  These  should  be  cut  about 
three  inches  wide  and  sufficiently  long  to  encircle  the  hill. 
They  should  be  set  about  an  inch  deep  in  the  ground. 
Spraying  the  plants  with  Paris  green  is  a  good  remedy. 
The  moths  of  cut-worms,  as  well  as  such  insects  as  adult 
wire  worms  and  grub  worms,  may  be  killed  at  night  by  means 
of  a  lantern  suspended  over  a  tub  of  water  having  a  little 
kerosene  on  its  surface.  This  should  be  done  late  in  the 
summer  when  the  moths  of  cut-worms  are  abundant. 

Striped  Cucumber  Beetle  (Diabrotica  vittata). — This 
little  beetle  attacks  squashes,  cucumbers,  and  melons  when 
they  are  young.  By  eating  the  foliage  and  tender  stems 
they  may  cause  the  death  of  the  young  plants.  When 


132  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

abundant  it  is  a  very  difficult  pest  to  combat.     It  appears 
in  the  spring  at  just  about  the  time  the  young  squash 
plants  are  out  of  the   ground,  having 
wintered   over  in    brushpiles  or   other 
places  affording  protection.     The  beetle 
lays  its  eggs  on  the  roots  of  corn,  where 
the    young    do    considerable    damage. 
These  worms  are  full  grown  in  about 
one  month  from  hatching.     They  then 
Fig.  47.    striped  cu-  leave  the  roots,  make  a  little  cavity  in 

cumber  beetle  and  larva.       ,  ,  -  .  ,  , 

the  earth  near  by,  and  undergo  their 
changes.  The  insects  spend  the  winter  in  the  beetle  stage. 
The  beetle  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  and  is  striped 
with  yellow  and  black.  It  is  very  quick  in  its  movements 
but  does  not  fly  much  except  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

Remedies. — An  extra 
amount  of  seed  should  be 
sown  so  as  to  secure  a 
good  stand  and  still  allow 
some  for  the  beetles. 
Dusting  the  vines,  stems, 
and  leaves  when  they  are 
moist,  with  air-slaked 
lime,  road  dust,  or  similar 
material  containing  a  lit- 
tle Paris  green  or  other 
poison,  is  quite  a  protec- 
tion, and  if  persistently 
followed  up  after  every 

Fig.  48.     Cheesecloth  screen  for  protect- 

rain    Will      generally     Ore-    ing  young  cucumber,  squash,  and   melon  vines 
.  t.          from  the  striped  beetle. 

vent   serious    loss.      But 

care  should  be  taken  to  put  the  dust  on  the  stems  as 

well  as  the  leaves.     Paris  green  and  water  is  also  a  good 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


133 


remedy  and  is  applied  the  same  as  for  the  potato  beetle. 
Tobacco  dust  is  also  an  excellent  preventative  used  in 
this  way.  Some  gardeners  having  quite  extensive  plant- 
ings and  many  who  are  working  in  a  small  way  prefer 
to  cover  each  hill  with  a  box  or  frame  covered  with 
cheesecloth.  In  this  case,  the  edges  of  the  box  or 
frame  should  be  sunk  an  inch  or  so  in  the  ground  to  keep 
out  the  bugs.  Frames  for  this  purpose  are  readily  made 
of  barrel  hoops  cut  in  halves  and  fastened  together,  or  of 
three  slender  sticks,  forming  a  sort  of  tent.  This  method 
allows  the  light  and  air  to  circulate 
freely  around  the  plants,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  are  perfectly  protect- 
'ed  and  at  slight  cost. 

White  Grub  or  May  Beetles 
(Lachno sterna  insca).  —  The  insect 
known  as  the  white  grub  is  the  larval 
stage  of  the  May  beetle.  It  lives  in 
the  soil,  where  it  feeds  on  the  roots 
of  plants.  The  mature  insect  is  a 
dark-brown  beetle,  often  nearly  black, 
with  breast  covered  with  yellowish 
hairs.  The  body  is  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  long  and  about  a  half  inch 
in  diameter.  They  fly  at  night  and 
are  well  known  insects  of  the  spring  of  the  year.  As  beetles 
they  feed  on  the  leaves  of  various  plants.  The  females 
lay  their  eggs  among  the  grass  roots  in  a  ball  of  earth. 
These  hatch  in  about  a  month,  and  the  grubs  begin  to  feed 
on  the  roots  near  by.  They  require  two  or  three  years' 
changes,  and  emerge  in  the  spring  of  the  third  or  fourth 
year  as  the  beetles  described. 

Remedies. — The  grubs  are  eaten  by  birds,  moles,  and 


Fig.  49.     The  May  beetle 
and  larva,  or  white  grub. 


134  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

skunks.  They  are  not  apt  to  be  abundant  in  any  but 
grass  land  recently  broken  up.  They  are  exceedingly  hard 
to  destroy  on  account  of  their  remaining  so  long  in  the  soil. 
When  young  plants  are  seen  to  be  wilting  from  the  effects 
of  the  grub,  they  may  sometimes  be  taken  up,  the  grub 
removed,  and  the  plant  reset.  When  lawns  or  other 
grass  lands  are  badly  affected  they  should  be  broken  up 
and  grown  in  some  cultivated  crop  for  two  years.  The 
beetles  should  be  trapped  when  they  become  abundant, 
as  recommended  for  cut-worm  moths.  Such  animals  as 
moles  and  shrews  should  generally  be  permitted  or  even 
encouraged  in  our  lawns  and  gardens  and  the  little  damage 
they  generally  do  suffered  patiently,  since  they  are  among 
our  best  friends  and  destroy  immense  numbers  of  white' 
grubs  and  other  insects  that  live  in  the  ground  and  are 
difficult  for  us  to  reach.  They  are  seldom  abundant  except 
where  insects  are  .numerous. 

Maggots  (Anthomyia  sp.). — They  are  often  destructive 
to  the  seed  or  roots  of  a  variety  of  plants,  including  onions, 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  similar  plants;  they  also  attack 
the  seed  of  corn,  peas,  beans,  and  other  vegetables  in  some 
seasons. 

Life  History. — The  maggot  here  referred  to  is  the  larva 
of  a  fly  somewhat  resembling  the  house  fly,  but  brown  in 
color.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  generally  on  the  food  plants,  and  hatch  out  in 
about  two  weeks  into  maggots,  that  commence  to  feed  at 
once  and  finally  become  one-half  inch  long;  these  change 
in  two  weeks  more  to  flies.  This  insect  winters  over  in 
the  pupa  state  in  the  ground. 

Remedies. — When  this  insect  attacks  onions  the  infested 
plants  turn  yellow  and  look  sickly,  and  all  of  them  should 
be  pulled  and  destroyed.  The  same  treatment  should  be 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


135 


given  to  any  onions  that  may  be  found  infested  at  harvest 

time.     When  onion  land  becomes  badly  infested  with  this 

pest,  crop  rotation  should  be  practiced  and  no  onions  should 

be  raised  near  it  for  a  year  or  two.     When  beans,  corn,  and 

peas  are  affected  the  seed  should  be  treated  with  a  very 

thin  coating  of  coal  tar  and  afterwards  rolled  in  plaster  or 

other   dust.     The  coal   tar   may   be   applied   as   follows: 

Spread  the  grain  out  in  a  warm  room  on  the  floor  about 

six  inches  deep  and  wet 

it    with    warm    water; 

sprinkle  on  a  very  little 

warm  coal  tar  (about  one 

tablespoonf  ul  to  one-half 

bushel)  until  each  grain 

is  coated ;  then  roll  it  in 

plaster  to  dry  it  off.     If 

this    is    carefully    done 

the  grains  will  not  stick 

together   and    may    be 

planted  by  any  planter. 

This  treatment  also  prevents  crows,  gophers,  and  squirrels 

from  pulling  newly  planted  corn. 

When  it  attacks  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  similar 
plants  it  may  be  destroyed  by  kerosene  emulsion,  since  the 
maggots  work  on  the  stem  and  roots  of  the  plant  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  such  an  application  would  be 
practicable  in  this  case;  while  in  the  case  of  many  other 
crops,  such  as  onions,  beans,  etc.,  it  might  be  quite  out  of 
the  question  on  account  of  the  large  number  of  plants  that 
would  have  to  be  treated  to  make  it  effectual.  In  the  case 
of  cabbage,  however,  it  may  be  prevented  from  entering 
by  inserting  the  plant  through  a  small  piece  of  tarred  paper 
that  is  allowed  to  remain  flat  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


Fig.  50.     The  common    onion  maggot  in 
various  stages. 


136  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Cabbage  Flea  Beetle  (Halticus  sp.). — There  are  several 
insects  closely  resembling  one  another  and  known  as  cabbage 
flea  beetles  that  feed  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  of  cabbage, 
turnips,  radish,  cauliflower,  etc.,  and  various  wild  plants. 
They  are  very  injurious  to  the  very  young  plants  if  allowed 
to  have  their  way,  but  when  the  plants  are  nicely  started 
they  do  not  seem  to  be  seriously  affected  by  this  pest. 
These  beetles  are  very  small  and  move  very  quickly.  The 
adult  insect  is  black  or  nearly  so;  some  of  them  lay  their 


Fig.  51.     Different  species  of  flea  beetles  with  their  larvae. 

eggs  near  the  roots  of  the  food  plants,  where  the  larvae  do 
some  damage ;  in  other  cases  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  under- 
side of  the  leaves  and  the  larvae  mine  into  them  and  live 
between  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces.  But  their  chief 
damage  is  as  beetles,  in  which  form  they  pass  the  winter. 
One  species  of  flea  beetle  is  sometimes  destructive  to 
potato  vines. 

Remedies. — Since  these  are  biting  insects  they  are 
readily  killed  by  Paris  green  in  the  usual  proportions.  If 
the  plants  are  kept  dusted  with  air-slaked  lime  or  plaster 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS  137 

they  are  measurably  protected  from  this  insect.  But  the 
latter  applications  are  greatly  improved  by  adding  a  little 
poison  to  them. 

Leaf  Lice  or  Aphides  (Aphis  sp.). — The  various  kinds 
of  leaf  lice,  otherwise  called  aphides,  that  live  on  plants  have 
very  much  the  same  general  habits.  They  are  all  sucking 
insects  and  increase  with  great  rapidity  when  their  food 
plants  are  abundant.  They  generally  winter  over  in  the  egg 
state.  The  summer  broods  are  often  brought  forth  with- 
out the  intervention  of  the  egg  state.  Kerosene  emulsion 
and  tobacco  water  are  the  useful  remedies,  but  hot  water 
and  pyre  thrum  will  also  destroy  them.  Leaf  lice  are  eaten 
by  the  larvae  of  lady  bugs,  and  they  are  also  subject  to  at- 
tacks of  parasites.  When  the  lice  are  coated  with  a  meal- 
like  covering  that  sheds  water  and  prevents  their  being  wet 
by  insecticides,  they  should  first  be  sprayed  with  strong 
soapsuds  to  remove  the  mealy  covering  and  then  the 
insecticide  may  be  applied  successfully. 

Cabbage  Lice  or  Aphides  (Aphis  brassicae). — These  are 
light  brown  insects  covered  with  a  floury  substance.  They 
attack  turnips,  cauliflower,  rutabagas,  and  similar  plants, 
as  well  as  the  cabbage.  They  work  generally  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  leaves,  where  they  collect  most  abundantly. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  dry  seasons.  The  remedies 
for  them  are  those  given  under  the  general  head  of  leaf  lice, 
but  in  addition  to  those  it  is  a  good  plan  to  burn  or  compost 
all  the  old  cabbage  leaves  and  stumps,  since  the  eggs  winter 
over  attached  to  them. 

Sweet  Corn  Moth  or  Tassel  Worm  (Ileliophila  uni- 
pucta). — This  is  the  boll  worm  of  the  South.  It  eats  into 
the  green  gram  of  the  corn,  but  is  seldom  very  trouble- 
some in  the  North.  Dr.  Lugger  thinks  that  it  does  not 
winter  over  in  the  extreme  Northern  states,  but  that  the 


138  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

moths  come  from  the  South  each  year.  The  only  remedy 
is  hand  picking.  It  is  doubtful  if  they  will  ever  become 
very  injurious  in  the  Northern  states,  since  they  do  not 
begin  their  work  there  until  late  in  the  season. 

Parsley  Worm  or  Celery  Caterpillar  (Papilio  asterias). — 
This  worm  eats  the  foliage  of  celery,  carrot,  parsley,  and 
allied  plants,  but  is  not  very  of  ten  injurious.  The  mature 
insect  is  a  beautiful  large  black  butterfly  having  yellow 
and  blue  spots  on  its  wings.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
foliage  and  hatch  into  small  caterpillars  less  than  one-tenth 
of  an  inch  long,  which  when  full  grown  are  one  and  a  half 
inches  long.  It  has  bright  yellow  markings.  The  remedy 
is  to  hand  pick  the  worms,  which  are  seldom  abundant. 

Chinch  Bugs  (Blissus  leucopteris). — The  chinch  bug 
does  not  trouble  any  of  our  garden  products  except  corn, 
but  is  sometimes  very  injurious  to  this  vege- 
table and  may  kill  it  in  a  very  few  days  if 
neglected.  This  is  a  sucking  insect  that  win- 
ters over  in  the  adult  state  under  leaves  and  in 
dry  protected  places  generally.  When  full 
52  Th  £rown  ft  is  about  one-seventh  of  an  inch  long 
bug  (en~  w^  w^ite  upper  wings  having  two  well- 
defined  black  spots  on  them.  When  crushed 
they  have  an  offensive  bedbug-like  odor.  This  insect  is  not 
affected  by  cold  weather,  but  succumbs  quickly  to  moisture. 
The  female  deposits  her  eggs  near  the  ground  on  the  stems 
or  roots  of  wheat,  oats,  grasses,  etc. 

Remedies. — The  burning  of  rubbish  accumulations  along 
headlands,  fences,  etc.,  in  the  winter  or  early  spring  in 
infested  localities  will  destroy  many.  They  always  infest 
the  small  grains  before  they  do  corn. 

While  these  insects  have  wings  they  use  them  but  little 
in  their  migration  in  summer,  but  they  travel  on  foot  and 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS  139 

often  in  great  numbers.  Taking' ad  vantage  of  these  pecu- 
liarities they  may  be  kept  from  corn  fields  by  plowing  deep 
furrows  in  their  way,  which  should  be  turned  back  as  soon 
as  filled  with  bugs  and  new  furrows  made.  Fences  of 
boards  six  inches  high  with  the  upper  edge  kept  covered 
with  tar  will  keep  them  out,  but  holes  in  the  ground  should 
be  made  at  intervals  along  the  line  of  the  boards,  which 
when  full  of  bugs  should  be  filled  in  with  earth,  and  new 
holes  made.  A  dusty  headland  or  road  is  very  difficult  for 
them  to  go  through.  If  they  finally  reach  the  corn  they 
will  readily  succumb  to  kerosene  emulsion.  Much  is  being 
done  to  rid  the  grain  fields  of  this  pest  by  infecting  the  bugs 
with  disease.  This  works  most  rapidly  in  moist  weather, 
but  other  remedies  should  not  be  put  aside  for  this  one. 

Bean   and   Pea   Weevil    (Bruchus   sp.). — The    insects 
known  as  weevils  are  quite  common  in  some  sections.     They 


Fig.    53.      The   bean   and     pea  weevil;   a,     peas     from     which     weevils     have 
emerged;    c,  larva. 

work  in  the  seed  of  beans  and  peas.  The  adult  insects  are 
small  beetles  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  flowers,  where  they 
soon  hatch  and  the  young  larvae  eat  their  way  into  the  im- 
mature seeds.  The  hole  by  which  the  larva  enters  the  seed 
grows  completely  over,  so  that  the  seed  appears  unimpaired 


140  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

externally.  In  the  seed  the  larva  does  not  touch  the  germ, 
though  it  may  eat  up  a  large  part  of  the  starch.  The  larva 
undergoes  its  changes  in  the  seed,  completing  which  the 
beetle  emerges  through  quite  a  large  hole  in  the  shell  of  the 
seed.  While  seed  that  is  infested  may  germinate,  it  forms 
only  weak  plants  that  are  very  sure  to  fail  to  mature  a  full 
crop.  Similar  insects  also  attack  corn.  There  is  another 
species  that  breeds  in  stored  grain,  peas,  and  beans,  etc., 
but  it  is  not  common. 

Remedies. — These  insects  are  generally  somewhat  local 
in  range.  Whenever  any  locality  is  infested  the  date  of 
planting  should  be  delayed  two  weeks,  by  which  means  the 
beetles  fail  to  find  the  crop  ready  when  they  are  ready  to 
lay  their  eggs.  The  trouble  generally  comes  from  sowing 
infested  seeds.  These  may  be  separated  out  by  throwing 
the  seed  into  water,  when  the  good  will  sink,  but  those 
infested  will  float.  Another  method  is  to  treat  the  seed 
with  carbon  bisulphide,  as  recommended  under  that  head. 
If  the  seed  is  kept  over  two  years  the  beetles  will  have  come 
out.  The  species  that  breeds  in  the  grain  is  most  easily 
destroyed  and  kept  out  of  the  seed  by  using  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  as  recommended. 

Squash  Vine  Borer  (Aegeria  cucurbitae). — The  squash 
vine  borer  is  the  larva  of  a  moth.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
stems  of  the  young  plants  near  the  roots  of  cucumber, 
squash,  and  melon  vines.  The  larvae  on  hatching  burrow 
into  the  stem  and  follow  along  the  center,  which  causes  the 
plants  to  wilt  and  finally  to  die.  The  full-grown  borer 
measures  about  one  inch  in  length  and  has  a  whitish  body 
with  a  brown  head.  The  borers  leave  the  stem  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer  and  winter  over  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  in  cocoons  composed  partly  of  earth.  The  moth 
emerges  the  following  spring. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


141 


Remedies. — This  insect  is  not  yet  found  in  this  section 
but  is  common  in  the  Eastern  states,  and  where  it  is  found, 
all  withered  or  dead  vines  should  be  destroyed.  When 


Fig.  54.  Squash  vine  borer;  a,  male  moth;  b,  female,  with  wings 
folded  naturally;  c,  eggs;  d,  full-grown  larva;  e,  pupa;  /,  pupa  cell. 
(Chittenden.) 

vines  have  only  commenced  to  wilt  the  borer  may  often 
be  cut  out,  when  the  vine  will  recover.  It  is  also  a  good 
plan  to  cover  several  of  the  lower  joints  of  squash  vines 
with  earth  to  encourage  the  formation  of  extra  sets  of  roots 
at  these  places. 

The  Squash  Bug  (Anasa  tristis). — This    insect   makes 
its  appearance  the  latter  part  of  June  or  the 
first  of  July.     The  fenfales  deposit  their  brown- 
ish-yellow eggs  in  small  patches  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves.     These  hatch  into  nymphs 
that  suck  the  sap  of  the  leaves,  often  seriously 
injuring  them.     The  full-grown  bug  is  a  little 
over    one-half  inch   long  and    is  of    a    rusty       pig.  55. 
black  color  above  and  yellowish  beneath.     It  Juash^bSg1^ 
emits    a    disagreeable    odor     when   touched.  (SSttenden.?' 


142 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


They  winter  over  in  rubbish,  under 
boards,  or  anywhere  they  can  find 
protection. 

Remedies.  —  Hand  picking  in  the 
morning  and  evening,  at  which  times 
the  bugs  are  somewhat  torpid,  is  the 
most  practical  remedy.  Boards  laid 
among  the  plants  at  night  will  be 
found  to  have  many  bugs  under 
them  in  the  morning,  and  these  may 
be  crushed  or  otherwise  destroyed, 
e  white  Lar§e  numbers  may  be  killed  in  this 

fly,  adult  and  pupa — highly    ...0.. 
magnified.    (Chittenden.)  Wd>  • 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

Name  two  biting  and  two  sucking  insects  and  remedies. 


Paris    green?     Kerosene    emulsion? 


1. 

2.  What    is    pyrethrum? 
Tobacco?     Carbon  bisulphide? 

3.  How  is  each  applied?     Give  formula  for  using. 

4.  What  are  objections  to  catching  insects  at  night  by  a  light? 

5.  How  are  insecticides  applied? 

6.  Give  the  life  history  of  Colorado  potato  beetle,  and  remedies. 

7.  Give  the  life  history  of  cabbage  worm,  and  remedies. 

8.  Give  the  life  history  of  cabbage  plusia,  and  remedies. 

9.  Give  the  life  history  of  wire  worms,  and  remedies. 

10.  Give  the  life  history  of  cut-worms,  and  remedies. 

11.  Give  the  life  history  of  striped  cucumber  beetle,  and  remedies. 

12.  Give  the  life  history  of  white  grub,  and  remedies. 

13.  Give  the  life  history  of  maggots,  and  remedies. 

14.  Give  the  life  history  of  cabbage  flea  beetle,  and  remedies. 

15.  Give  the  life  history  of  leaf  lice,  and  remedies. 

16.  Give  the  life  history  of  cabbage  lice,  and  remedies. 

17.  Give  the  life  history  of  parsley  worm,  and  remedies. 

18.  Give  the  life  history  of  chinch  bug,  and  remedies. 

19.  Give  the  life  history  of  bean-pea  weevil,  and  remedies. 

20.  Give  the  life  history  of  squash  vine  borer,  and  remedies. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
MARKETING 

MARKETING  is  the  most  important  phase  of  vegetable 
growing,  and  is  the  point  where  a  great  majority  of  growers 
make  their  failure.  Many  men  are  excellent  growers,  but 
for  some  reason  do  not  put  their  produce  on  the  market  in 
attractive  packages,  or  else  do  not  have  it  in  season,  or  it  is 
of  poor  quality.  A  few  days'  tardiness  in  putting  some 
produce  on  the  market  may  mean  a  loss  of  profit  on  it.  A 
good,  honest,  attractive  pack  is  always  a  splendid  means  of 
holding  the  steady  trade  of  a  customer,  and  this  is  what 
should  always  be  aimed  at. 

Grading. — It  pays  to  grade  vegetables  as  well  as  fruits. 
As  a  rule  fifty  bushels  of  tomatoes  well  graded  to  size,  shape, 
color,  etc.,  will  sell  more  quickly  and  for  a  better  price 
than  fifty  bushels  ungraded.  Neater  packages  may  be  made 
up  of  vegetables  well  graded  than  where  they  are  mixed,  and 
attractiveness  is  the  great  factor  in  selling  any  produce. 

Cleanliness. — Cleanliness  is  an  important  factor  in 
selling.  Some  vegetables,  such  as  cucumbers,  cabbage, 
etc.,  may  be  packed  in  the  field  without  washing;  others, 
such  as  radishes,  lettuce,  celery,  and  the  root  crops,  are 
often  washed  in  the  packing  shed.  This  washing  not  only 
takes  off  the  dirt  but  brightens  and  freshens  the  vegetables 
Asparagus,  celery,  and  rhubarb  are  often  stood  on  end 
in  a  shallow  pan  of  water  to  prevent  their  wilting.  Some 
vegetables,  as  the  root  crops,  often  require  careful  scrubbing 
to  make  them  clean.  Eggplants,  tomatoes,  and  melons 
may  be  wiped  off  with  a  damp  cloth.  Clean,  new  packages 
should  always  be  used, 


144 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Packages. — The  package  is  an  important  factor  in 
marketing  and  one  that  is  changing  frequently.  Different 
vegetables,  of  course,  require  different  types  of  package. 
Markets  vary  in  package  requirements.  Some  use  a  bushel 
box,  others  a  bushel  basket,  and  still  others  sell  the  product 
by  weight.  Some  markets  require  produce  to  be  put  up  in 
small  packages,  others  in  large  ones.  The  market  should 
be  studied  to  determine  the  best  package.  Packages 
should  be  chosen  that  are  best  adapted  to  showing  the 
vegetable  in  the  most  attractive  manner,  that  are  easy  to 
handle,  and  that  protect  the  fruit  to  the  best  advantage. 


Fig.  57.     Types  of  packages  used  in  market  gardening. 

Cheapness  of  package  is  not  so  important  as  that  it  be 
attractive.  A  cheap  package  often  turns  out  to  be  expensive 
because  it  does  not  permit  of  proper  exhibition  of  the  vege- 
table, or  perhaps  it  is  too  easily  broken  and  so  does  not 
protect  it  in  handling.  A  package  that  can  be  used  for 
local  sales  may  not  be  of  any  value  for  long  shipments  on 
account  of  its  being  too  easily  broken.  The  size  of 
package  must  be  adapted  to  the  vegetable  and  to  the 
special  market  requirements,  as  a  rule. 

Selling. — There  are  three  main  channels  for  selling 
vegetables:  (1)  the  consumer  direct,  (2)  the  retailer,  and 
(3)  the  wholesaler. 


MARKETING 


145 


Selling  direct  to  the  consumer  takes  more  time  away 
from  the  garden  and  is  distasteful  to  many  growers.  Others 
in  small  towns  are  able  to  work  up  a  good  paying  business 
in  this  way.  In  order  to  hold  customers,  a  large  variety 
of  vegetables  must  be  grown  and  great  pains  taken  to  have 
only  the  best  quality  on  sale  at  all  times.  H.  B.  Fullerton, 
of  Long  Island,  has  developed  a  package  which  he  calls  the 


Fig.  58.     The  Long  Island  home  hamper.     (Photo  courtesy  H.  B.  Fullerton.) 

home  hamper.  This  is  filled  with  a  seasonable  variety 
of  vegetables  and  expressed  directly  to  the  consumer  at 
stated  times  as  may  be  agreed  on.  This  gives  the  cus- 
tomers the  variety  of  vegetables  they  may  desire  and  enables 
them  to  obtain  them  fresh.  A  cut  of  this  hamper  is  shown 
in  Fig.  58.  A  certain  priced  hamper  is  usually  agreed 
on  for  the  season  or  for  the  year. 

Many    gardeners   may    sell    direct    to    retailers,  such 


146  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

as  the  grocers,  either  from  the  market  or  from  their  homes. 
This  is  very  satisfactory  to  growers  because  it  does  not 
take  much  time  away  from  the  farm. 

The  third  method  of  selling  is  to  the  wholesaler,  either 
delivering  to  him  direct  or  shipping  from  the  country. 
This  is,  of  course,  the  method  that  the  large  trucker  or  the 
grower  of  special  crops  must  follow  very  largely.  Many 
growers  grow  special  crops,  especially  for  certain  wholesalers. 
This  method  has  the  advantage  of  taking  a  small  amount 
of  time  from  the  farm  and  does  away  with  the  bother  of 
retailing,  although  not  as  high  prices  are  realized.  It  is  a 
favorite  method  of  many  growers. 

Advertising. — Growers  who  retail,  or  sell  direct  to  the 
consumer,  often  fail  to  realize  the  value  of  advertising 
their  business.  A  little  judicious  advertising  in  the  local 
papers  often  gives  good  returns.  If  the  grower  is  on  a 
well  traveled  highway  near  a  large  city,  a  bulletin  board  at 
the  entrance  of  the  farm,  listing  produce  for  sale,  often 
brings  customers,  although  there  is  usually  too  much 
bother  attached  to  this  method  of  selling  to  make  it  profitable. 

Co-operative  Associations. — In  the  trucking  districts 
of  the  country  co-operative  associations  have  proven  of 
value.  These  associations  can  employ  men  to  do  the 
selling  of  produce  and  to  purchase  tools,  packages,  etc., 
thus  relieving  the  grower  of  much  work  that  he  is  often 
not  qualified  to  perform.  The  association  is  able  to  control 
the  grading  and  the  marketing  of  produce  to  much  better 
advantage  than  can  individuals.  It  gives  a  chance  to  open 
markets  at  a  distance  because  there  is  a  certainty  of  being 
able  to  supply  vegetables  in  large  quantities  and  over  a 
longer  season  than  one  individual  could.  The  selling  can 
be  done  at  much  less  expense  than  if  each  grower  marketed 
his  own  produce. 


CHAPTER      IX 
GARDEN  VEGETABLES 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES 

Vegetables  may  be  classified  in  many  ways,  but  per- 
haps the  most  helpful  way  is  to  divide  them  according  to 
the  conditions  under  which  they  grow  best,  into  (1)  warm- 
and  (2)  cold-climate  vegetables. 

(1)  Among  warm-climate  vegetables  (often  called  trop- 
ical) we  have  tomato,  corn,  beans,  pepper,  eggplant,  cucum- 
ber,   muskmelon,  watermelon,  squash,  pumpkin,  and  okra. 
These  plants  all  require  hot  weather  for  their  growth,  are 
severely  injured  by  the  first  hard  frost,  and  should  not  be 
planted  in  open  ground  until  warm  weather  is  assured. 
They  are  generally  at  their  best  on  a  warm  southern  expo- 
sure and  in  soil  having  a  little  sand  in  its  composition. 
These  plants  are  all  natives  of  hot  climates  and  will  not 
survive  long  in  cold  climates  when  left  to  themselves. 

(2)  Among  cold-climate  vegetables  we  have  practi- 
cally all  those  commonly  grown  not  mentioned  under  (1), 
such  as  asparagus,  rhubarb,  horseradish,  salsify,  and  par- 
snip, which  stand  our  severest  winters  without  injury;  and 
those  that  are  less  hardy,  such  as  onion,  leek,  pea,  beet, 
spinach,  cabbage,  Brussels  sprouts,  cauliflower,  cress,  kale, 
kohl-rabi,  radish,  rutabaga,  turnip,  carrot,  parsley,  celery, 
celariac,  lettuce,  endive,  potato,  strawberry,  tomato,  and 
others.     These  all   grow  well  at  a  cool  temperature  and 
most  of  them  will  stand  some  frost  without  injury.     They 
may  be  divided  into  those  with  tops  that  are  frost-hardy 
and  that  are  frost-tender,  as  follows: — 


148  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

By  frost-tender  vegetables  is  meant  those  whose  tops 
are  injured  by  a  light  frost;  such  as,  potato,  asparagus, 
strawberry,  tomato,  and  of  course  all  the  tropical  plants 
mentioned  under  (1).  Some  plants,  like  asparagus  and  our 
native  oak  tree,  may  have  foliage  that  is  very  susceptible  to 
frost  but  are  hardy  in  winter. 

By  frost-hardy  vegetables  is  meant  those  having  foliage 
that  is  not  injured  by  light  frost,  among  which  are'  horse- 
radish, rhubarb,  onion,  leek,  garlic,  pea,  spinach,  beet, 
cabbage,  Brussels  sprouts,  cauliflower,  cress,  kale,  kohl-rabi, 
radish,  rutabaga,  turnip,  carrot,  parsley,  celery,  lettuce, 
endive,  and  most  of  the  garden  herbs. 

Botanical  Classification. — All  plants  may  be  divided 
into  families,  each  of  which  has  its  distinguishing  features. 
Our  garden  vegetables  and  herbs  belong  to  at  least  seven- 
teen families.  The  special  features  of  each  of  which  will 
be  found  with  the  cultural  directions  for  the  plants  grouped 
under  them,  but  for  convenience  a  list  is  here  given  of  all 
the  vegetables  referred  to  herein,  arranged  under  their 
proper  family  names: — 

The  Fungi  Group  or  Family, — mushroom,  or  toadstool. 

The  Grass  Family  (Gramineae), — corn. 

The  Lily  Family  (Liliaceae), — asparagus,  onion,  leek, 
garlic. 

The  Buckwheat  Family  (Polygonaceae), — rhubarb,  or 
pieplant. 

The  Goosefoot  Family  (Chenopodiaceae) , — beet,  Swiss 
chard,  and  spinach. 

The  Cabbage  Family  (Cruciferae), — cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, radish,  rutabaga,  turnip,  Brussels  sprouts,  kale,  kohl- 
rabi, horseradish,  cress  and  water  cress. 

The  Clover  Family  (Leguminosae), — bean  and  pea. 

The  Mallow  Family  (Malvaceae), — okra. 


MUSHROOM  149 

The  Parsnip  Family  (Umbelliferae) , — parsnip,  parsley, 
carrot,  celery,  celariac,  caraway,  dill,  anise,  coriander,  and 
fennel. 

The  Morning  Glory  Family  (Convol vulaceae) , — sweet 
potato. 

The  Mint  Family  (Labiatae), — sweet  basil,  lavender, 
balm,  spearmint,  peppermint,  summer  savory,  winter 
savory,  sweet  marjoram,  thyme,  sage,  and  catnip. 

The  Potato  Family  (Solanaceae), — tomato,  potato,  egg- 
plant, pepper,  and  strawberry  tomato. 

The  Martynia  Family  (Martiniaceae), — martynia. 

The  Gourd  Family  (Cucurbitaceae) , — cucumber,  squash, 
muskmelon,  watermelon,  pumpkin,  and  gourd. 

The  Sunflower  Family  (Compositae) , — lettuce,  salsify, 
endive,  and  dandelion. 

The  Rue  Family  (Rutaceae), — rue. 

The  Borage  Family  (Boraginaceae) , — borage. 

THE  FUNGI 

The  Fungi  group  includes  a  large  number  of  flowerless 
plants  that  are  propagated  by  division  and  by  spores. 
Besides  the  cultivated  and  wild  mushrooms,  which  are  dis- 
cussed below,  this  group  includes  some  that  are  poisonous, 
although  they  form  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  whole 
number  of  species  that  are  apt  to  be  taken  for  edible  kinds. 
The  wheat  rusts,  mildews,  grain  smuts,  and  other  similar 
diseases  also  come  in  under  this  head.  The  spores  (seed 
bodies)  are  distributed  in  various  ways,  but  very  commonly 
by  their  becoming  light  and  powdery  and  being  blown  about 
by  the  wind,  as  in  the  case  of  the  common  puffball  and  corn 
smut.  There  is  no  sure  way  of  telling  the  poisonous  mush- 
room from  the  edible  kinds,  but  most  of  the  species  have 
been  studied  and  their  value  for  food  is  well  known. 


150  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

MUSHROOMS  (Agaricus  campestris) 

There  are  many  edible  wild  mushrooms,  and  they  differ 
in  no  particular  from  the  so-called  toadstools,  but  the 
species  named  above  is  the  kind  commonly  cultivated. 
The  part  eaten  is  really  the  fruit-bearing  portion  and  not, 
as  many  suppose,  the  plant  itself.  The  true  plant  is  the 
white  network  of  fibers  that  grow  in  the  soil,  and  it  is  this 
part  that  is  used  in  propagating  them. 

Culture. — The  cultivation  of  the  mushroom  is  often 
attended  with  uncertainty.  It  is,  however,  being  grown 
on  an  increasingly  larger  scale,  and  the  demand  for  it 
constantly  increases.  The  conditions  essential  to  success 
in  growing  it  are  a  rich  soil  and  a  steady  temperature  of 
from  50°  to  75°  F.  It  is  for  the  purpose  of  securing  this 
latter  requisite  that  cellars  and  old  caves  are  often  utilized 
in  its  culture,  as  light  is  not  necessary.  Horse  manure  is  a 
practically  indispensable  material  for  the  growth  of  mush- 
rooms. If  possible,  it  should  be  from  animals  fed  on  rich, 
nitrogenous  food  and  be  as  free  from  strawy  litter  as  it 
can  be  obtained.  This  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with 
a  fourth  or  fifth  part  of  good  garden  soil  and  is  then  ready 
to  go  into  the  beds.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  beds 
are  in  a  well-drained,  damp  place.  They  may  be  of  any 
size  or  shape  desired  but  should  be  about  ten  inches  deep. 
Some  of  the  largest  growers  use  tiers  of  shelves  or  boxes, 
each  one  of  which  is  eight  or  ten  inches  deep,  into  which 
they  put  the  soil. 

Whatever  the  shape  of  the  beds,  the  soil  should  be 
packed  into  them  firmly  and  evenly  and  be  left  smooth  on 
the  outside.  A  thermometer  should  then  be  inserted  in  the 
center  of  the  mass.  As  soon  as  fermentation  sets  in,  the 
temperature  will  rise  until  probably  over  100°  F.  will  be 
indicated,  and  when  it  falls  to  80°  the  bed  is  ready  to 


MUSHROOM  151 

receive  the  spawn.  This  may  sometimes  be  obtained  from 
old  mushroom  beds,  but  it  is  best  to  depend  on  that  sold 
by  seedsmen,  as  it  is  more  certain  to  be  free  from  other 
fungi.  The  operation  of  spawning  consists  in  putting 
pieces  of  the  spawn  bricks  the  size  of  small  hens'  eggs  in 
holes  made  about  two  inches  deep  and  ten  or  twelve  inches 
apart.  Afterwards  the  holes  should  be  filled  with  the  soil 
and  the  surface  firmed  and  smoothed  off. 

If  the  work  has  been  well  done  and  the  conditions  are 
favorable,  the  spawn  should  commence  to  grow  in  seven  or 
eight  days;  at  the  end  of  that  time  it  should  be  examined 
and  any  pieces  that  have  not  started  should  be  removed 
and  be  replaced  by  fresh  spawn.  A  failure  in  germination 
is  indicated  by  the  absence  of  white  threads  in  the  manure 
around  the  spawn.  When  the  spawn  has  nicely  started  and 
begins  to  show  itself  on  the  surface,  the  bed  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  layer  one  inch  thick  of  fine,  slightly  moist  soil, 
which  should  be  pressed  down  smoothly  and  firmly. 

In  damp  cellars  mushroom  beds  do  not  need  water,  but 
if  the  surface  gets  dry  they  should  be  watered  with  tepid 
water  from  a  fine  rose  watering  pot.  The  mushrooms 
should  show  in  from  five  to  eight  weeks,  and  the  bed  con- 
tinue to  yield  for  two  or  three  months.  The  spawn  bricks, 
as  they  are  termed  by  seedsmen,  are  simply  flat  square 
pieces  of  a  mixture  of  manure  and  loam  into  which  spawn 
has  been  put  and  has  grown  until  it  fills  the  whole  piece. 
Afterwards  these  bricks  are  dried,  and  form  the  mushroom 
bricks,  or  spawn,  of  commerce. 

Native  Mushrooms. — There  are  quite  a  number  of 
native  mushrooms  that  are  edible,  but  since  there  are 
also  several  poisonous  kinds  one  should  be  careful  about 
trying  unknown  sorts.  Among  the  edible  kinds  are  the 
several  sorts  known  as  puff  balls  (Lycoperdon) .  When 


152  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

these  first  appear,  they  are  white  balls  of  a  fleshy  texture 
with  little  or  no  stalks;  as  they  ripen,  the  flesh  turns  gradually 
to  a  dark  brown,  and  finally  the  spores  are  ejected  by  the 
ball  being  crushed  or  by  naturally  breaking  open.  They 
are  not  fit  to  eat  after  the  flesh  begins  to  turn  brown. 
The  smaller  sorts  are  most  common,  but  the  giant  puff 
ball  is  occasionally  met  with  and  is  often  ten  or  more 
inches  in  diameter. 

Another  common  native  mushroom  is  shown  in  Fig. 
45.     It  has  a  stem  several  inches  high,  but  the  top  does  not 


Fig.  59.  Native  mushrooms.  On  the  left  is  shown  the  Giant  Puff  Ball 
(Lycoperdon  giganteum);  on  the  right,  Maned  Agaric  (Coprinus  comatus)  in 
various  stages  of  maturity. 

expand.  It  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  all  the  mush- 
room tribe  when  young.  It  is  called  the  Maned  Agaric 
(Coprinus  comatus).  It  grows  in  waste  and  grassy  places, 
lawns,  and  meadows.  The  gills  (layers  on  the  under  part 
of  the  head)  are  at  first  white  or  pink,  melting  into  an  inky, 
fluid -like  substance  when  more  mature. 

Little  attention  has  ever  been  paid  in  this  country  to 
growing  our  native  species.  They  could  undoubtedly  be 
propagated  by  digging  up  some  of  the  earth  where  they 
grow  abundantly  and  mixing  it  with  the  soil  where  it  is 


CORN  153 

desired  to  grow  them.  The  kinds  mentioned  mature  in 
the  latter  part  of  summer  and  are  especially  abundant  in 
old  pastures  or  other  places  containing  much  decaying 
organic  matter  and  during  moist  weather.  If  an  attempt 
is  made  to  grow  them,  it  would  probably  be  necessary 
to  keep  the  ground  moist  all  summer  to  secure  the  best 
results. 

THE  GRASS  FAMILY  (Order  Gramineae) 

The  Grass  Family  has  many  well-known  general  charac- 
teristics. It  includes  many  species  and  produces  the  greater 
part  of  the  food  of  the  human  race  either  directly  as  seed 
or  indirectly  as  meat,  and  yet  only  corn  is  ordinarily  grown 
in  vegetable  gardens.  Among  the  most  important  food 
plants  belonging  here  are  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  rice, 
corn,  sorghum,  and  sugar  cane.  The  wild  rice  grows  in 
great  abundance  in  some  portions  of  Minnesota  and  Wiscon- 
sin and  was  an  important  article  of  food  among  the  Indians. 

CORN  (Zea  mays) 

Description. — Native  of  America.  An  annual.  The  male 
flowers  are  in  the  tassel  and  the  female  flowers  on  the  cob. 
While  cross-fertilization  is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
production  of  seed,  it  is  necessary  for  a  good  crop.  The 
varieties  of  corn  may  be  easily  grouped  under  four  classes: 
(1)  Sweet  corn,  which  includes  varieties  with  soft  and 
generally  much  wrinkled  kernels,  that  are  especially  desir- 
able for  use  in  a  green  state  on  account  of  their  being 
sweeter  and  more  delicate  in  flavor  than  other  kinds.  (2) 
Flint  corn,  which  includes  field  varieties  having  a  very  hard, 
smooth  grain.  (3)  Dent  corn,  which  includes  field  varieties 
rather  softer  in  texture  than  the  flint  corn,  each  kernel 
having  a  depression  in  the  end  of  it.  (4)  Pop  corn,  which 
has  a  kernel  of  flinty  hardness  and  is  used  almost  entirely 


154  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

for  popping  purposes.  These  classes  will  all  cross  together. 
But  there  are  numerous  varieties  in  each  of  the  classes, 
varying  from  one  another  in  height  of  stalk,  size  and  color 
of  the  ear  and  kernel,  time  of  ripening,  and  various  minor 
particulars.  The  color  of  the  grains  may  be  white,  yellow, 
red,  or  purple,  but  white  and  yellow  are  most  common. 
Corn  is  quickly  improved  by  judicious  selection,  and  new 
varieties  are  frequently  originated  in  this  way. 

Early  Sweet  Corn. — For  early  use  the  seed  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  begins  to  get  warm  in  the  spring. 
Very  early  planting  is  not  desirable  for  the  main  crop, 
since  in  cold  ,  wet  weather  the  seed  is  liable  to  rot  in  the 
ground,  or  the  plants  may  be  frozen  on  coming  up.  It 
may,  however,  be  desirable  to  plant  some  of  the  earliest 
kinds  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  warm,  and,  slelecting  the 
most  favorable  location,  run  the  risk  of  failure,  as  the 
profits  are  correspondingly  large  if  the  crop  is  very  early, 
while  the  expense  of  planting  is  a  small  matter.  Early 
varieties  may  .sometimes  be  planted  in  flower  pots, 
berry  boxes,  etc.,  in  a  greenhouses  or  cold  frame  and 
transplanted  to  the  garden  when  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

Main  Crop. — The  main  crop  of  corn  should  be  planted 
from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  May.  The  land  can  hardly 
be  too  rich  for  corn,  and  it  should  be  in  a  finely  pulverized 
condition.  The  seed  may  be  planted  in  rows  at  about  nine- 
inch  intervals,  with  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart,  or  in 
hills  three  to  four  feet  apart  each  way,  according  to  the 
growth  of  the  plants  and  method  of  cultivation  to  be 
followed.  It  should  be  covered  about  two  inches.  If 
grown  in  hills,  three  or  four  plants  should  be  left  in  a  place, 
which  means  planting  about  six  seeds  to  the  hill.  If 
planted  in  hills,  they  may  be  cultivated  both  ways,  which 
is  an  advantage  over  planting  in  rows.  In  rows,  however, 


CORN 


155 


the  plants  develop  rather  better  than  in  hills,  and  it  is  the 
method  preferred  by  many  good  growers,  though  field  corn  is 
generally  planted  in  hills.  Corn  should  be  cultivated 
shallow  and  never  deep  enough  to  cut  the  roots;  until  it  is 
six  inches  high  it  may  be  harrowed  with  a  slant  tooth 
harrow. 

Later  Plantings. — In  order  to  have  a  long  season  of  this 
vegetable  in  its  best  condition  for  table  use,  plantings  of 
the  very  early  and  some  good  second  early  kind  should 
be  made  at  the  same  time;  and  then  plantings  of  the  second 


Fig.  60.     Early  Cory  corn. 

early  kinds  should  be  made  once  in  two  weeks  thereafter, 
up  to  about  the  twentieth  of  June.  If  planted  later  than 
this  there  is  much  doubt  about  its  getting  large  enough 
for  table  use  before  the  autumn  frosts  set  in.  The  very 
early  kinds,  however,  may  be  planted  in  Minnesota  as  late 
as  the  fourth  of  July,  with  good  prospects  of  their  becoming 
of  marketable  size ;  but  the  very  early  varieties  are  small 
in  size  and  not  as  sweet  and  desirable  as  the  larger  second 
early  or  late  kinds,  and  a  few  varieties  require  the  whole 


156  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

season  in  which  to  obtain  table  size.  If  properly  planted, 
sweet  corn  may  be  had  in  a  young  and  tender  condition 
from  the  middle  of  July  until  the  cold  weather  of  autumn. 

Marketing. — There  is  a  large  demand  for  green  corn 
in  every  city  and  village.  It  is  marketable  as  soon  as  the 
kernels  are  well  formed  and  is  generally  sold  in  the  husk 
by  the  dozen  or  by  the  barrel,  at  prices  ranging  on  the 
market  from  five  to  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen.  There 
are  many  canning  factories  in  the  Northwest  and  many 
in  other  parts  of  the  country  that  make  a  specialty  of  can- 
ning sweet  corn.  Grown  for  this  purpose  or  for  evaporat- 
ing, it  is  a  farm  crop  that  may  be  made  to  pay  very  well  in 
some  locations,  and  extensive  tracts  of  land  are  devoted 
to  raising  it.  Where  the  crop  is  marketed  at  canning 
factories  the  fodder  is  left  on  the  farm  and  is  in  admirable 
condition  for  feeding. 

The  canneries  pay  from  $10  to  $>12  per  ton  for  the 
corn  in  a  few  states.  They  pay  by  the  pound  for  corn  cut 
from  the  cob.  Gross  receipts  for  corn  vary  from  fifty 
cents  or  one  dollar  to  two  or  three  hundred  dollars  per  acre. 
The  ears  are  best  for  table  use  when  first  picked,  and 
quickly  lose  in  quality  after  gathering;  if  they  heat  in 
piles  or  packages  they  are  of  very  inferior  quality. 

Varieties.— Peep-O-Day,  White  and  Red  Cob  Cory 
are  early  varieties.  They  will  often  mature  in  eight  weeks. 
Early  Minnesota,  Black  and  White  Mexican,  and  Golden 
Bantam  are  good  second  early  sorts.  Golden  Bantam 
is  an  especially  good  variety  for  the  home  garden.  It  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  sell  on  account  of  its  yellow  color,  until 
the  buyers  have  tried  it.  Crosby  is  a  good  early  canning 
sort  and  is  also  a  good  second  early  for  the  market.  For 
late  use,  but  requiring  a  long  season  in  which  to  mature, 
Stowell's  Evergreen  and  Egyptian  Mammoth  are  desirable. 


CORN  157 

They  are  good  for  canning.  The  Country  Gentleman  is  a 
late  variety  for  home  use.  The  kernels  are  narrow  and 
long  and  arranged  irregularly  on  the  cob.  It  has  one  of 
the  smallest  cobs  of  all  varieties. 

Pop  corn  is  grown  in  the  same  way  as  sweet  corn.  For 
home  use  a  very  little  will  suffice ;  in  some  sections,  however, 
it  is  raised  in  large  quantities.  It  is  usually  marketed  on 
the  cob  and  is  seldom  salable  until  at  least  one  year  old. 
Among  the  best  varieties  are  White  Rice  and  Golden  Pop. 


Fig.  61.     Late  sweet  corn. 

Varieties  of  corn  run  out  and  change  very  quickly  if 
neglected,  and  there  is  often  much  difference  in  the  strains 
of  different  kinds.  Those  that  it  is  desired  to  keep  pure 
should  be  grown  at  least  1000  feet  away  from  other  kinds  that 
flower  at  the  same  period.  Varieties  of  corn  of  every 
description  including  all  those  belonging  to  the  sweet, 
dent,  flint,  and  pop  corn  classes,  will  mix  together  when 
near  by  each  other. 

Curing  Seed  of  Sweet  Corn. — The  seed  of  the  late  varieties 
of  sweet  corn  is  difficult  to  cure  thoroughly  and  is  very 


158 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


the  ground 
the  pollen 
experiments 


liable  to  mold  during  the  drying  process,  unless  it  is  given 
plenty  of  light  and  air.  A  good  way  is  to  tie  the  ears  in 
small  bunches  and  suspend  in  a  dry,  hot,  airy  room  after 
it  has  ripened  as  nearly  as  may  be  on  the  stalk. 

Cutting  off  the   Tassels. — It  has  been   recommended 
to    cut    off    half    of  the  tassels  from  the  young  corn,  on 
that  one-half  the  tassels  would  produce  all 
needed     by    all    the    kernels..   While    some 
have   shown   this   to   be   true,    many  other 
experiments   show    there 
is  little  if  anything  to  be 
gained  by  the  practice. 

Insects. — Corn  is  quite 
free  from  serious  injury, 
either  from  insects  or 
diseases.  The  most  in- 
jurious insects  are  the  cut 
worm  and  boll  worm,  for 
discussion  of  which  see 
chapter  on  insects. 

Smut  (  Ustilago  maydis) 
is  almost  the  only  disease 
seriously  injurious  to  corn. 
It  is  a  fungous  disease 
that  works  in  almost  any 
part  of  the  plant,  causing 
swellings  which  contain 
black  spores.  When  ripe, 
the  swellings  burst  and 
the  spores  are  scattered 
to  continue  the  disease  the  following  year.  There  can  be 
no  question  that  gathering  and  destroying  the  bunches  of 
spores  by  burning  or  burying  them  deeply  in  the  ground 


Fig.  62.     Corn  smut. 


ASPARAGUS  159 

would  result  in  greatly  lessening  the  loss  from  this  cause. 
This  should  be  done  before  the  smut  boils  turn  black  and 
break  open.  It  is,  however,  such  an  expensive  remedy  as  to 
seem  almost  impracticable.  Some  experiments  seem  to  show 
that  soaking  the  seed  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  may 
assist  in  preventing  this  trouble  in  corn  as  well  as  smut  in 
wheat,  but  other  experiments  apparently  prove  the  con- 
trary, and  it  may  be  taken  as  a  doubtful  matter  at  the 
best.  Practically,  then,  we  know  of  no  sure  remedy  for 
smut  in  corn. 

THE  LILY  FAMILY  (Order  Liliaceae) 

The  Lily  Family  is  made  up  of  plants  that  with  few 
exceptions  have  parallel-veined  leaves.  The  flowers  are 
regular  and  symmetrical  with  perianth  of  six  parts,  six 
stamens,  and  a  superior  three-celled  ovary;  fruit  a 
many-seeded  dry  pod  or  soft  berry.  Besides  the  asparagus, 
onion,  garlic,  and  leek,  whose  cultural  directions  are  here 
given,  there  occur  in  this  family  the  tiger  and  other  lilies, 
the  hyacinth,  tulip,  Spanish  bayonet,  century  plant,  smilax, 
lily  of  the  valley,  and  many  other  familiar  flowering  plants. 

ASPARAGUS  (Asparagus  officinalis) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  perennial.  The 
asparagus  is  an  herbaceous  plant,  growing  to  the  height 
of  about  four  feet.  The  flowers  are  small  and  generally 
yellow.  They  are  perfect,  but  in  many  plants  the  pistils 
are  abortive,  so  that  only  about  half  of  the  plants  produce 
seed.  The  seed  is  produced  in  spherical  berries,  that  are 
vermillion  in  color  when  they  ripen  in  the  autumn.  The 
seeds  are  black  and  triangular,  numbering  about  1400  to 
the  ounce.  They  may  be  taken  from  the  berry  quite 
readily  by  macerating  the  fruit  in  water  to  remove  the 
pulp  and  light  seed  and  then  drying  the  good  seed. 


160 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Asparagus  is  one  of  the  most  valuble  garden  vegetables. 
It  is  perfectly  hardy,  never  fails  to  produce  a  crop,  is  one 
of  the  first  vegetables  to  be  obtained  in  the  spring,  and 
may  be  used  until  the  middle  of  June.  Perhaps  no  other 
vegetable  is  more  highly  esteemed  by  those  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  its  use.  It  may 
be  grown  with  success  in 
any  good  corn  land,  but  is 
worthy  of  the  best  of  care, 
as  it  responds  readily  to 
rich  manure  and  high  cul- 
tivation. On  sandy  loam 
the  crop  is  much  earlier 
than  on  clay  soils;  wet 
land  is  not  suited  to  it. 
Large  quantities  of  aspar- 
agus are  grown  in  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  and 
California,  especially  for 
canning.  The  white  varieties  are  preferred  for  this  purpose. 
Propagation. — It  grows  readily  from  seed,  and  one 
ounce  of  seed  is  sufficient  for  about  fifty  feet  of  drill,  and 
should  produce  with  good  care  about  four  hundred  plants, 
though  no  particular  care  is  necessary  for  success.  The 
seed  should  be  sown  in  good  soil  early  in  the  spring,  in 
drills  which  may  be  as  close  as  sixteen  inches,  and 
it  should  be  covered  about  one  inch  deep.  As  asparagus 
seed  starts  slowly,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  radishes 
or  other  early-appearing  crop  with  it,  so  that  the 
rows  may  be  seen  and  weeding  commenced  early.  This 
practice  does  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  asparagus 
as  the  radishes  will  be  ready  for  use  and  out  of  the  way 
before  it  needs  much  room.  The  seedling  asparagus  roots 


Fig.  63.     Asparagus  plant,  full  grown. 


ASPARAGUS 


161 


will  be  large  enough  for  transplanting  to  the  permanent 
plantation  when  one  year  old,  and  it  is  the  best  plan  to 
do  so,  but  they  may  be  allowed  to  stand  two  years  in  the 
seed  bed.  The  young  seedling  plants  which  often  come  up 
in  or  near  asparagus  beds  may  be  transplanted  in  July  of 
the  first  year  directly  to  the  permanent  bed,  and  will  do 
very  well  if  handled  carefully.  At  whatever  age  they  are 


Fig.  64.     Asparagus  root  crown,  with  edible  shoots. 

transplanted  the  plants  should  be  dug  and  set  out  in  the 
spring  or  early  summer,  as  they  are  likely  to  fail  when 
removed  in  the  autumn.  Asparagus  may  be  increased  by 
dividing  the  crowns,  but  this  is  an  expensive  process,  and 
plants  so  grown  have  no  peculiar  merit  over  those  from 
seed.  By  buying  the  plants  instead  of  sowing  the  seed  to 
start  with,  one  or  two  years'  time  may  be  saved,  and  fre- 
quently it  is  cheaper  to  buy  the  plants  than  to  raise  them.  1 1 


162  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  IN  a 

is  said  that  plants  that  do  not  bear  seed  produce  more  sprouts 
than  those  that  do.  Such  plants  may  be  increased  by  divisions. 

Planting. — While  asparagus  should  always  be  moved  in 
the  spring,  it  is  not  necessary  to  move  it  very  early,  though 
it  is  better  to  do  so;  but  it  may  be  successfully  transplanted 
as  late  as  the  first  of  June.  Any  long  sprouts  that  may 
have  started  should  be  broken  off  when  the  plants  are  set 
out.  The  land  for  planting  should  be  heavily  manured, 
deeply  plowed,  and  finely  pulverized;  and  it  is  important 
to  do  this  work  well,  as  asparagus  beds  well  made  should 
last  at  least  twenty  years.  The  opinions  of  different 
growers  as  to  distance  between  plants  vary  much.  It 
has  been  advocated  to  set  the  plants  four  feet  apart  each 
way  and  if  the  soil  is  remarkably  fertile  this  distance  will 
not  be  too  great;  if  the  land  is  not  very  rich,  it  is  customary 
to  put  the  plants  at  intervals  of  three  feet  in  rows  four 
feet  apart.  If  a  bed  for  a  family  garden  is  desired  where 
space  is  limited,  it  is  probably  best  to  set  the  plants  three 
by  three  feet  apart.  About  100  plants  will  produce  all 
the  sprouts  needed  in  an  ordinary  home  garden. 

Depth  to  Plant. — For  ordinary  purposes  asparagus 
roots  should  be  planted  about  six  inches  deep;  the  deeper 
they  are  planted  the  later  they  will  be  about  starting  in 
the  spring;  if  planted  much  less  than  six  inches  deep,  the 
the  roots  often  push  up  to  the  surface  and  interfere  with 
cultivation.  The  plants  should  not  be  covered  to  the 
full  depth  of  six  inches  at  once,  or  the  shoots  may  never 
be  able  to  push  up  to  the  surface.  The  furrows  should  be 
made  with  a  plow  to  the  proper  depth,  the  plants  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  covered  about  three  inches 
to  begin  with,  and  the  furrows  filled  in  by  after  culti- 
vation as  the  tops  grow.  By  the  middle  of  the  summer 
the  furrows  should  be  level  full. 


ASPARAGUS  163 

Cultivation  during  the  first  year  can  be  done  almost  entire- 
ly with  a  horse,  though  some  hand  hoeing  will  be  necessary 
between  the  plants.  By  autumn  of  the  first  year,  the  tops 
should  be  three  feet  high.  As  soon  as  they  are  dead  they 
should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  ground  with  a  heavy,  sharp 
hoe  or  similar  tool,  and  then  the  land  should  have  a  light 
plowing  or  be  worked  up  with  a  harrow  to  a  depth  of  four 
inches.  No  care  need  to  be  taken  about  the  plants  when 
cultivating  at  this  season  of  the  year,  but  the  whole  surface 
may  be  cultivated  or  plowed  three  inches  deep  as  though 
no  crop  were  on  the  land.  In  the  spring  the  land  should  be 
cultivated  as  soon  as  it  will  work  well,  in  order  that  it  may 
warm  up  quickly.  There  will  be  no  crop  to  cut  until 
the  spring  of  the  third  year;  a  very  little,  however,  may 
safely  be  cut  the  second  year  after  planting  if  the  plants 
do  well. 

The  cultivation  in  subsequent  years  should  be  very 
much  the  same  as  that  given  above;  but  in  addition,  when 
the  crop  has  been  all  harvested  and  cutting  is  to  cease, 
which  will  be  about  the  middle  or  last  of  June  in  the 
Northern  states,  the  whole  bed  should  have  a  thorough 
cultivation  to  the  depth  of  three  inches  without  regard  to 
the  rows,  and  if  manure  is  to  be  used  it  should  be  put  on 
at  this  time.  Under  this  method  of  treatment  it  is  un- 
necessary to  do  much  hand  weeding,  and  it  is  very  easy 
to  keep  the  soil  in  the  best  condition  by  horse  power. 
After  the  thorough  cultivation  in  June,  all  the  sprouts 
that  come  up  from  the  roots  should  be  permitted  to  grow 
until  autumn,  by  that  time  they  should  be  about  five  feet 
high  if  in  good  soil  and  will  have  ripe  seed.  It  is  necessary 
to  allow  the  tops  to  grow  to  this  extent  in  order  that  plant 
food  may  be  stored  up  in  the  roots.  Very  late  cutting 
weakens  the  growth  of  the  plants. 


164  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Fertilizing. — Asparagus  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  it 
pays  to  apply  barnyard  and  commercial  fertilizers  liber- 
ally. Sometimes  these  are  applied  in  the  fall  or  spring 
but  probably  the  best  time  is  in  June  after  the  last  cutting 
has  been  made.  Various  amounts  are  recommended, 
from  five  to  ten  tons  of  barnyard  manure,  supplemented 
with  commercial  fertilizers,  such  as  kainit  and  nitrate  of  soda. 
Manure  should  be  broadcasted,  especially  between  the 
rows,  and  plowed  in.  If  left  on  the  hills,  it  is  apt  to  en- 
courage the  plant  to  form  roots  near  the  surface,  which 
is  always  objectionable.  Commercial  asparagus  growers 
sometimes  expend  from  $50  to  $100  per  acre  on  fertilizers 
for  their  fields.  Salt  is  not  of  much  value  on  an  asparagus 
bed,  except  as  a  weed  killer,  and  it  sometimes  holds  mois- 
ture. 

Manure  applied  to  the  bed  in  autumn  or  before  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring,  prevents  the  frost 
from  coming  out  and  so  keeps  back  the  growth,  unless 
the  manure  applied  is  very  fine  and  at  once  cultivated 
into  the  soil.  Sometimes  manure  applied  in  the  fall  will 
keep  the  plants  back  a  week  or  two  in  spring. 

Cutting. — When  the  crop  is  grown  for  marketing,  it  is 
not  desirable  to  cut  the  shoots  until  the  third  season  after 
planting  the  roots;  however  in  the  case  of  small  beds  in 
the  garden  where  the  planter  is  very  anxious  to  test  the 
fruit  of  his  labor,  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  no  harm  is 
likely  to  come  from  a  very  slight  cutting  the  second  season. 
The  sprouts  should  be  cut  as  they  appear  in  the  spring, 
and  all  of  them  should  be  cut  when  of  the  proper  size, 
although  they  may  not  be  needed  at  that  time.  If  permitted 
to  grow  they  interfere  with  subsequent  cutting  and  prevent 
the  growth  of  new  sprouts.  They  will  also  be  in  the  way 
of  cultivation  later  in  the  season. 


ASPARAGUS 


165 


The  sprouts  are  generally  cut  off  about  two  inches 
below  the  surface  when  they  are  about  six  inches  high 
above  the  ground.  At  this  time  all  but  two  inches  of  the 
asparagus  is  green,  which  is  the  right  condition  for  most 
markets.  Some  persons  prefer  to  have  white  sprouts,  and  in 
such  cases  the  shoots  should  be  cut  four  or  five  inches  deep 
in  the  ground.  In  case  white  sprouts  are  wanted  it  is  also 
a  good  plan  to  mound  up  around  the  hills  or  to  cover  them 
with  fine  manure  to  keep  the  sunlight  away  from  the 
shoots.  The  demand  for  green  asparagus  far  exceeds 


Fig.    65.     Method    of  bunching  asparagus,    showing  loose  sprouts,  a  box  for 
tying  up  in,  and  completed  bunches. 

the  white,  and  is  fully  as  good  in  quality.  The  time  between 
cuttings  is  largely  dependent  on  the  weather.  In  early 
spring,  if  the  weather  is  rather  cold,  the  plants  may  not 
give  more  than  one  cutting  per  \\eek,  but  later  in  the  season 
a  good  cutting  will  perhaps  be  made  once  in  two  days. 
A  severe  frost  will  kill  all  the  shoots  above  ground  but 
will  not  injure  subsequent  cuttings. 

Asparagus  is  marketed  by  tying  the  sprouts  in  bunches, 
and  the  size  of  the  bunches  depends  much  upon  the  market 
and,  in  some  places,  on  the  season  and  whether  the  supply 


166  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

is  plentiful  or  not.  It  is  very  desirable,  however,  to  have  all 
the  bunches  of  one  size.  Three  grades  are  often  made,  known 
as  extra,  prime,  and  second,  with  sometimes  a  fourth, 
known  as  culls.  These  should  be  packed  in  neat,  clean 
packages.  It  is  preferable  to  tie  the  sprouts  when 
they  are  just  a  little  wilted  and  then  set  them  in 
water  to  swell  and  make  the  bands  tight.  The  shoots 
will  easily  keep  for  a  week  if  kept  cold  and  moist.  It  is 
customary  to  stand  the  bunches  on  end  in  water  in  keep- 
ing them. 

Yield. — The  manner  of  cultivation  and  the  soil  will 
determine  to  a  great  extent  the  yield  of  asparagus.  East- 
ern growers  get  as  high  as  3000  bunches  per  acre.  The 
gross  income  per  acre  may  range  from  $250  to  $500  or 
higher  per  acre  on  well  kept  acreage. 

Forcing  asparagus  for  early  use  is  being  done  to  some 
extent  near  large  cities,  where  it  is  often  a  profitable  under- 
taking. For  this  purpose  the  roots  must  be  dug  in  the  fall 
and  carefully  stored  in  earth  in  a  cellar.  In  March,  make 
a  good,  slow  hotbed  and  put  the  roots  in  it  in  good  soil.  It 
is  important  to  start  the  roots  slowly,  or  the  shoots  will  be 
spindling  and  weak.  The  roots  stored  as  recommended 
may  also  be  forced  into  growth  in  a  warm  cellar,  shed, 
greenhouse,  or  a  part  of  a  permanent  bed  may  be  enclosed 
in  glass  or  cotton  sheeting. 

Varieties. — Palmetto  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  on 
account  of  its  resistance  to  rust  and  its  large-sized  shoots. 
Conover's  Colossal  originated  on  the  farm  of  Abraham  Van 
Sichen,  of  Long  Island,  New  York,  and  was  introduced  by 
S.  B.  Conover,  a  produce  merchant  of  New  York  City. 
This  is  a  good  variety  and  is  very  widely  planted.  Argen- 
teul  is  a  French  variety  grown  very  largely  about  Paris. 


ONIONS  167 

There  are  two  types  of  this,  an  early  and  a  late.  Other 
varieties  are  Moore's  and  Columbian  Mammoth. 

Insects. — The  asparagus  beetle  (Crioceris  asparagi)  and 
the  twelve  spotted  asparagus  beetle  (Crioceris  duodecim- 
punctata)  are  the  two  principal  insects.  The  beetles  appear 
in  early  spring,  and  should  be  kept  in  check  by  keeping  all 
shoots  cut  off,  and  after  the  cutting  season  ends  spray  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  using  two  or  three  pounds  in  fifty  gallons 
of  water;  or  with  Bordeaux,  using  resin  soap  to  make  the 
mixture  stick  to  the  foliage.  Spray  every  two  weeks  if 
necessary.  Apply  air-slacked  lime  when  young  first  appear, 
and  during  a  hot  day  jar  the  plants  to  make  the  young 
drop  to  the  ground,  where  they  perish.* 

Diseases. — Rust  (Puceinia  asparagi)  is  the  only  serious 
disease  of  asparagus.  It  causes  the  foliage  and  stems  to 
turn  brownish  and  to  mature  early.  Spray  with  Bordeaux 
and  resin  soap  every  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  middle  of 
July.  Cut  off  and  burn  dead  tops  in  the  late  fall.  Good 
cultivation  and  plenty  of  humus  in  the  soil,  to  retain  mois- 
ture, will  help  to  retard  the  serious  injury  of  the  disease.! 

ONIONS  (Allium  cepa) 

Description. — Native  of  central  or  western  Asia.  A 
biennial,  sometimes  perennial.  The  original  home  of  the 
onion  is  not  known.  It  has  no  true  stem,  but  this  is  repre- 
sented by  the  base  of  the  bulb.  The  form,  color,  and  shape 
of  onions  vary  greatly  in  different  varieties.  The  free  por- 
tion of  the  leaves  is  elongated  and  is  swollen  in  the  lower 
part.  The  flowers,  which  are  white  or  lilac  in  color,  are 
borne  in  dense,  round  heads  on  long,  slender,  hollow  stalks; 
sometimes,  instead  of  flowers,  a  head  of  small  bulbs  is  pro- 
duced  and  no  seed  at  all.  This  may  occur  occasionally  in 

*Bulletin  150,  Maryland  Experiment  Station. 
fBulletin  151,  Maryland  Experiment  Station, 


168  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

all  kinds,  but  is  the  almost  invariable  characteristic  of  tree 
and  top  onions.  The  seeds  are  black,  angular,  and  flattish. 
Usually  the  plant  dies  after  seeding  and  disappears  entirely, 
but  sometimes  seed  onions  produce  peculiar  pointed  bulbs, 
called  cloves,  as  well  as  seeds.  Such  plants  may  be  consid- 
ered perennial,  and  also  the  potato  onion,  which  never 
seeds  and  is  propagated  by  the  division  of  its  bulbs. 

The  onion  has  been  cultivated  from  remote  antiquity, 
and  there  are  very  many  varieties  that  have  been  developed 
for  different  purposes.  These  are  almost  without  exception 
grown  for  their  bulbs,  but  in  a  few  cases  no  bulbs  are  formed. 
The  bulbs  are  white,  red,  and  yellow  in  color,  with  inter- 
mediate shades.  In  the  successful  raising  of  the  onion, 
good  judgment  and  experience  play  an  important  part. 
Perhaps  no  other  vegetable  crop  is  more  certain  to  pay  the 
skillful  grower  for  his  time  and  labor,  and  no  other  is  more 
liable  to  cause  trouble  to  the  careless  beginner,  and  yet  its 
cultivation  is  quite  simple. 

The  prices  for  onions  vary  greatly.  They  seldom  are 
so  cheap  as  to  make  the  crop  unprofitable :  but  occasionally 
they  get  down  to  fifteen  cents  per  bushel,  at  which  price 
they  cannot  be  grown  at  a  profit.  There  are  few  animals 
that  eat  onions,  and  if  not  sold  they  can  not  be  fed  to 
stock  on  a  large  scale,  as  is  the  case  with  most  vegetables. 
As  a  money  crop  for  careful  growers  in  many  sections  they 
are  among  the  most  reliable:  and  if  a  reasonable  amount 
of  them  is  raised  each  year  without  regard  to  the  price  the 
preceding  year,  it  is  a  crop  that  will  generally  average  a 
good  profit. 

Soil. — Onions  may  be  raised  on  any  good,  retentive 
soil.  Sandy  land  is  too  apt  to  dry  out  in  summer  for  best 
results.  On  drained  muck  land,  large  crops  may  be  easily 
raised;  although  onions  grown  on  such  soil  are  often  a  little 


ONIONS  169 

looser  in  texture  than  those  raised  on  drier  land.  The  land 
should  be  rich,  fine,  and  free  from  weeds  and  any  strawy 
manure  or  other  material  that  would  interfere  with  close 
cultivation.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  put  on  having  the 
land  free  from  weed  seeds,  since  it  is  a  crop  that  requires 
much  hand  weeding  and  the  plants  are  quite  delicate  when 
young.  The  soil  should  be  rather  firm  for  onions  and 
plowed  in  the  fall  rather  than  in  the  spring.  Fall  plowing 
leaves  the  soil  firm  and  in  excellent  condition  for  the  crop. 
Sometimes  when  the  land  is  rich  it  is  desirable  not  to  plow 
at  all,  especially  if  it  produced  onions  the  preceding  year, 
but,  instead,  to  make  a  seed  bed  by  the  use  of  a  disk  or 
other  good  harrow,  and  plant  at  once;  in  fact,  better  results 
will  generally  be  obtained  from  spring  harrowing  than  from 
spring  plowing  of  land  to  be  used  for  onions.  Of  course, 
when  the  land  is  prepared  by  harrowing  only,  any  manure 
applied  should  be  very  fine,  so  as  to  be  properly  covered. 

Old  land  is  generally  preferred  for  onions,  and  this  crop 
is  often  successfully  raised  on  the  same  land  for  many  years. 
From  the  fact  that  onion  land  is  always  most  carefully 
attended  to  and  gets  much  manure  and  tillage,  it  is  gener- 
ally in  better  condition  for  onions  than  land  used  for  almost 
any  other  crop.  It  is  a  good  plan,  however,  to  change  the 
land  occasionally  for  onions,  since  on  new  land  there  is  far 
less  danger  from  disease  and  insect  enemies  than  on  old 
land.  Land  that  has  grown  any  crop  requiring  high  culture 
and  heavy  manuring  and  is  free  from  weed  seeds  will  gen- 
erally grow  good  onions.  Sometimes  onions  are  raised  on 
newly  cleared  woodland  or  prairie  sod  with  greatest  suc- 
cess simply  by  sowing  the  seed  broadcast  and  harrowing  it 
in;  but  this  is  seldom  attempted. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — Before  sowing  the  seed  the  land 
should  be  made  very  smooth.  It  is  very  important  to  get 


170  .  x     VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

the  seed  in  the  ground  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible. 
As  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  the  seed 
should  be  sown,  and  the  earlier  it  is  sown  the  better.  The 
seed  of  some  kinds  can  be  sown  in  the  autumn  to  advantage, 
but  on  4and  that  is  inclined  to  "bake,"  it  is  a  bad  practice 
and  is  seldom  attempted.  There  is,  however,  a  fair  chance 
of  a  crop  even  if  the  seed  is  sown  as  late  as  the  first  of  June, 
but  a  first-class  crop  from  seed  sown  as  late  as  this  is  almost 
out  of  the  question.  By  the  middle  of  May,  all  onion  land 
should  have  been  sown. 

The  proper  distance  between  the  rows  will  depend 
somewhat  on  the  variety  grown,  but  for  ordinary  purposes 
the  seed  should  be  sown  in  rows  twelve  to  fifteen  inches 
apart  and  covered  one  inch  deep.  About  eighteen  good 
seeds  should  be  sown  to  each  foot  of  row,  which  will  make 
it  necessary  to  use  four  or  five  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  If 
there  is  danger  of  much  loss  from  the  depredations  of  the 
onion  maggot,  more  than  this  amount  of  seed  should  be 
used;  where  maggots  are  very  troublesome  some  growers 
use  as  much  as  six  pounds  per  acre.  The  seed  sower 
should  be  carefully  tested  on  a  floor  or  other  smooth  surface 
before  using  it  in  the  field. 

It  is  very  important  to  know  the  germinating  qualities 
of  the  seed  sown,  since  if  it  is  of  low  germination  more  must 
be  used  than  if  it  is  of  best  quality.  Ninety  per  cent  of 
good  onion  seed  ought  to  germinate  if  the  conditions  are 
favorable.  It  is  important  to  study  these  matters  closely, 
as  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  land  well  stocked  with  plants 
and  yet  not  overstocked.  It  is  better  to  fail  of  getting 
quite  enough  seed  on  the  land  as  is  desired,  than  it  is  to  get 
very  much  more  than  is  wanted;  for  in  the  first  case  the 
onions,  although  somewhat  scattering,  will  be  of  good  size; 


ONIONS  171 

while  if  the  plants  are  too  thick  they  must  be  thinned  out, 
or  the  onions  will  be  small  and  inferior. 

The  work  of  thinning  onions  on  a  large  scale  is  a  very 
expensive  operation,  and  every  precaution  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  having  to  do  it.  If  the  seed  is  sown  only  a.  little 
thicker  than  the  plants  ought  to  stand,  it  is  sometimes  a 
good  plan,  instead  of  thinning  them  out,  to  put  on  an  extra 
dressing  of  some  quick-acting,  easily-applied  manure,  such 
as  hen  manure,  which  will  probably  make  it  possible  for 
the  land  to  mature  the  whole  crop  in  good  shape.  Onions 
have  the  quality  of  crowding  out  to  the  sides  of  the  rows  and 
on  top  of  one  another,  so  that  they  may  grow  pretty  thick 
and  still  be  of  good  size,  providing  other  conditions  are 
favorable  to  their  development. 

It  is  important  to  have  the  seed  sown  in  straight  rows. 
If  the  first  row  is  laid  off  with  a  line  or  otherwise  made 
straight,  the  subsequent  rows  are  easily  made  parallel  to  it 
by  means  of  the  marker  on  the  seed  sower.  If  some 
vacancies  are  found  in  the  rows  after  the  onions  appear, 
they  may  be  filled  by  sowing  onion  seed  in  them  by  hand; 
late  in  the  season  such  vacancies  may  be  sown  with  carrot 
seed. 

Cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  plants  commence  to  break 
the  surface  soil,  cultivation  should  be  commenced  with  a 
hand  cultivator  that  will  work  both  sides  of  the  row  at  one 
time  and  throw  a  little  earth  from  the  plant;  hand  weeding 
shculd  follow  at  once.  At  the  second  hoeing,  the  plants 
being  now  pretty  strong,  the  soil  should  be  cultivated  some- 
what deeper.  This  will  enable  a  careful  man  to  work  the 
soil  very  close  to  the  plants.  Onions  grow  naturally  in  the 
surface  of  the  land  and  not  below  it,  and  should  never  be 
hilled  up.  The  onion  crop  should  be  hoed  and  weeded  as 
often  as  the  weeds  appear  or  whenever  the  ground  packs 


172  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

hard  around  the  growing  plants.  The  weeds  should  be 
destroyed  when  small.  This  means  that  until  early  summer 
the  onions  should  be  hoed  about  once  every  two  weeks. 

When  the  plants  get  so  large  that  they  will  no  longer  pass 
under  the  straddle  cultivator  without  being  bruised,  the 
work  of  cultivation  must  be  continued  between  the  rows 
until  the  bulbs  commence  to  form,  after  which  it  is  not  a 
good  plan  to  work  much  among  them,  since  pushing  the  tops 
about  tends  to  make  them  die  down  more  quickly  than  other- 
wise. When  the  onions  are  about  the  size  of  a  half  dollar 
and  before  the  tops  fall  over,  it  is  a  good  plan,  if  the  land  is 
not  very  rich,  to  apply  some  quick-acting  fertilizer  ,such  as 
hen  manure  or  °.  commercial  fertilizer  broadcast  over  the 
crop.  This  should  be  done  just  before  or  during  a  rain  if 
possible.  For  this  purpose  dry,  fine  hen  manure  is  good, 
but  any  rich,  nitrogenous  fertilizer  will  answer. 

Harvesting. — If  the  plants  are  going  to  make  good 
onions  they  will  become  weak  in  the  neck  just  above  the 
bulb  when  nearly  grown  and  fall  flat  on  the  ground,  where 
they  should  be  allowed  to  lie  undisturbed  until  the  tops  and 
roots  are  entirely  dried ;  then  the  bulbs  can  be  easily  pulled 
out  of  the  ground  with  a  rake  or  onion  puller.  In  the  vicin- 
ity of  St.  Paul,  this  time  will  be  in  August  or  the  early  part 
of  September.  About  four  rows  of  bulbs  should  be  thrown 
together,  and  they  should  be  turned  with  a  rake  every  few 
days  until  perfectly  dry  and  then  be  put  under  cover  to  pro- 
tect them  from  rain.  If  they  are  allowed  to  get  wet  several 
times  after  being  pulled,  the  outer  skins  are  apt  to  come  off 
and  thus  make  the  bulbs  unsightly.  If  not  pulled  for  some 
little  time  after  they  are  ripe,  especially  if  the  season  is 
moist,  new  roots  are  very  sure  to  start  and  the  roots  become 
grown  so  firmly  into  the  soil  that  the  work  of  pulling 
and  drying  them  is  increased.  The  work  of  cutting  or 


ONIONS  173 

twisting  off  the  tops,  called  topping,  may  be  left  until  the 
onions  are  marketed;  but  they  will  be  found  to  keep  much 
better  if  "topped,"  since  if  the  tops  are  left  on  they  prevent 
a  free  circulation  of  the  air  through  the  bulbs. 

"Scallions"  or  "Thick  Necks."— Sometimes,  too,  the 
tops  of  the  plants  do  not  die  down  as  they  should,  but  re- 
main green  and  continue  to  grow  after  the  bulbs  are  well 
formed,  becoming  what  are  called  "scallions"  or  "thick 
necks."  This  is  generally  due  to  the  planting  of  poorly 
selected  seed,  but  sometimes  it  is  not  to  be  accounted  for. 
In  such  cases  it  is  generally  recommended  to  break  the  tops 
down,  which  certainly  does  no  harm,  but  is  of  doubtful 
value".  A  better  way  is  to  pull  such  plants  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  grow  vigorously  after  once  having  formed  good 
bulbs,  dry  them  as  much  as  possible,  and  remove  the  tops. 
Such  onions  do  not  generally  keep  well,  however,  and  had 
better  be  used  during  autumn  and  early  winter. 

Keeping  Onions. — Onions  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool 
place.  In  a  damp  cellar  they  will  sprout  and  grow,  no 
matter  if  the  temperature  there  is  near  the  freezing  point. 
They  will  stand  quite  a  little  frost  without  much  injury,  but 
if  frozen  and  thawed  several  times  they  become  soft  and  do 
not  keep  well,  but  start  to  grow  quickly.  The  best  place 
to  keep  onions  is  in  a  cold,  dry  room  in  slatted  bins  or  on 
shelves  so  arranged  that  the  air  can  circulate  through  them. 
A  very  practical  plan  is  to  put  them  in  barrels  without  heads, 
having  holes  in  the  bottom  and  sides,  and  pile  these  on  top 
of  one  another  two  tiers  high,  first  putting  down  scantling  or 
other  material  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  under  and 
around  them. 

If  our  common  onions  are  frozen  solid  in  the  autumn 
and  kept  so  all  winter,  they  will  generally  come  out  right  in 
the  spring.  A  good  way  to  do  this  is  to  lay  them  eighteen 


174  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

inches  thick  on  the  floor  of  a  loft  and  cover  with  a  foot  or  so 
of  hay.  Thus  arranged  they  will  not  freeze  until  severe 
weather  sets  in  and  will  remain  frozen  until  spring.  They 
may  also  be  put  in  water-proof  bins  in  the  field  where  grown 
and  treated  in  the  same  way.  They  should  never  be  han- 
dled when  frozen,  as  they  are  apt  to  bruise.  Freezing  and 
thawing  several  times  seriously  injures  them,  but  if  kept 
frozen  and  gradually  thawed  out  they  come  out  in  very  nice 
condition.  After  thawing  out,  they  will  not  keep  well,  but 
quickly  start  to  grow,  and  should  be  disposed  of  at  once. 
The  Prizetaker  and  similar  kinds  are  an  exception  to  this 
rule  and  are  likely  to  be  ruined  if  frozen. 

Onion  sets  is  a  term  applied  to  small  onions  that  are 
planted  out  in  the  spring  instead  of  seeds.  If  onions  under 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  are  planted  out  in  the 
spring,  they  do  not  go  to  seed  as  do  larger  onions,  but  form 
new  bulbs,  much  earlier  than  they  are  formed  when  grown 
from  seed.  Taking  advantage  of  this  fact,  it  has  become 
a  common  practice  to  raise  these  small  onions  (sets)  and 
plant  them  out  for  early  summer  use.  It  does  not  matter 
how  small  the  set  is,  and  one  the  size  of  a  pea  is  as  good  as 
one  much  larger.  The  size  generally  preferred  is  about  one- 
half  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Planting  Onion  Sets. — The  method  of  planting  sets 
is  to  have  the  land  in  the  same  condition  as  recommended 
for  onion  seed  and  plant  the  sets  as  soon  as  the  soil  can 
be  worked  in  the  spring.  In  doing  this  mark  off  the  land 
in  drills  twelve  inches  apart  and  push  each  set  down  firmly 
three  inches  deep  into  the  mellow  soil,  leaving  them  three 
inches  apart.  This  is  done  by  hand,  and  each  set  is  han- 
dled separately,  so  as  to  have  them  right  side  up.  The 
drill  is  then  closed  in  with  the  feet  or  rake,  so  that  each  set 
is  entirely  covered  up.  If  the  ground  is  dry,  it  is  some- 


ON  ION  8  175 

times  rolled  to  make  it  still  more  compact  around  the 
bulbs,  but  it  is  generally  quite  moist  when  the  sets  are 
planted  in  early  spring. 

As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen,  the  wheel  hoe  is  used, 
and  the  plants  kept  free  from  weeds  and  the  soil  well 
stirred.  By  this  method  we  shall  have  onions  of  good 
table  size  by  the  first  of  July,  and  some  may  be  marketed 
in  bunches  in  a  green  state  in  June.  Onion  sets  seldom, 
if  ever,  fail  to  produce  good  crops,  and  are  well  adapted 
for  use  in  the  home  garden  and  by  those  who  will  not 
take  the  pains  necessary  to  grow  good  onions  from  seed. 
No  matter  how  poor  the  soil  or  the  cultivation  where  the 
sets  are  planted,  they  always  increase  in  size  and  ripen 
early.  There  is  no  danger  of  their  being  injured  by  freez- 
ing after  being  planted.  From  six  to  ten  bushels  of  sets 
are  required  per  acre,  depending  on  their  size. 

The  raising  of  onion  sets  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent 
in  some  localities,  and  it  is  a  crop  that  requires  much  skill 
in  handling.  Sandy  soil  of  rather  inferior  quality  but 
free  from  weeds  and  in  fine  tilth  is  best  for  this  purpose. 
To  keep  the  sets  from  growing  too  large,  it  is  customary 
to  plant  from  thirty  to  fifty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  and 
not  plant  it  until  the  latter  part  of  May.  This  treatment 
crowds  the  seedlings  so  that  they  cannot  grow  large.  In 
sowing  the  seed,  it  is  best  to  go  over  the  rows  with  the 
sower  three  or  four  times,  sowing  only  a  part  of  the  seed 
each  time.  This  spreads  the  seed  out  in  wide  drills  and 
permits  of  more  even  work  than  would  be  possible  were 
it  attemped  to  sow  all  the  seed  by  going  over  the  rows 
once.  If  onion  sets  grow  too  large  it  is  often  almost 
impossible  to  use  them  for  any  purpose,  since  they  are  too 
small  to  sell  well  except  for  pickling,  and  the  demand  for 
this  purpose  is  very  limited.  On  this  account,  if  it  is 


176 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


feared  the  sets  will  grow  too  large,  they  are  pulled  when 
of  the  proper  size,  even  if  still  quite  green.  The  further 
cultivation  of  plants  for  sets  is  the  same  as  for  a  field  crop 
of  onions. 


Fig.  66.     At  the  left,  onion  plants  as  dug;  on  the  right, 
onion  plants  trimmed  and  ready  for  transplanting. 

The  sets  should  be  taken  up  in  August,  or  as  soon  as 
ripe,  with  a  rake  or  onion  set  puller.  When  dry  they 
should  be  stored,  tops  and  all,  about  four  inches  deep, 
in  a  loft,  where  they  should  be  covered  with  a  foot  of  hay 
or  straw  on  the  approach  of  hard  frost  and  left  until  wanted 
for  planting  in  the  spring.  In  other  words,  they  should 
be  kept  frozen  all  winter.  Treated  in  this  way  they  will 
require  cleaning  in  the  spring,  which  may  be  done  by 
rubbing  them  in  the  hands  to  loosen  the  dirt  and  tops  and 
then  running  them  through  a  fanning  mill.  After  this 
they  are  run  over  a  screen  with  a  three-fourths  inch  mesh, 
and  only  those  that  go  through  it  are  saved  for  sets.  This 


ONIONS  177 

work  of  cleaning  may  be  done  in  autumn  before  storing 
and  the  sets  mixed  with  chaff  to  aid  in  keeping  them  over 
winter. 

Transplanting  Onions. — Within  a  few  years  some 
market  gardeners  have  adopted  a  plan  of  raising  onions 
by  sowing  the  seed  in  March  in  a  hotbed  and  then  trans- 
planting the  seedlings  to  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  it 
works  well.  This  system  has  the  merit  of  doing  away 
with  the  first  few  weedings  in  the  open  ground,  reduces 
the  expense  of  seed  to  a  minimum,  and  makes  it  possible 
to  raise  some  of  the  more  delicate  foreign  varieties  of  onions 
that  command  the  highest  price  in  the  market.  It  is  very 
doubtful,  however,  if  the  common  field  onions  can  be 
raised  at  a  profit  under  this  method,  but  it  is  desirable  if 
the  Spanish  kinds  are  to  be  raised  in  Northern  states. 

The  selection  and  preparation  of  the  land  for  this 
purpose  are  the  same  as  for  a  field  crop.  The  seed  is  sown 
in  a  hotbed  in  rows  three  inches  apart,  or  on  a  small  scale 
a  few  plants  may  be  raised  in  a  box  in  the  window  of  the 
living  room.  The  soil  for  this  purpose  should  be  somewhat 
sandy  loam  of  only  moderate  quality,  and  that  which 
has  no  manure  in  it  is  most  certain  to  grow  healthy  plants. 
If  very  thick  in  the  row,  the  plants  must  be  thinned  out 
so  as  not  to  crowd  one  another  too  much,  but  still  they 
may  be  grown  very  thickly;  as  many  as  twelve  to  fifteen 
plants  to  the  inch  of  row  is  about  right,  and  to  secure  this 
amount  about  twice  as  many  seeds  will  have  to  be  sown 
to  the  inch.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached 
to  the  raising  of  strong  plants,  since  those  that  are  weak 
and  splindling  are  very  certain  to  fail  when  removed. 

For  a  week  or  two  previous  to  setting  out  the  plants, 
they  should  have  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  remove  the  sashes  entirely  from  over  them  except  when 


178  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

there  is  danger  of  frost.  In  this  way  the  plants  may  become 
hardened  off,  as  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  serious  injury 
by  freezing  when  moved  to  the  open  ground.  They  will 
stand  some  freezing  weather  when  well  hardened  off. 
They  do  not  transplant  so  well  when  soft  and  succulent 
as  when  properly  hardened.  The  land  and  preparation 
required  are  the  same  as  for  a  field  crop  of  onions.  The 
plants  should  be  set  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  rows 


Fig.  67.     Transplanting  onions  in  the  field. 

twelve  inches  apart.  Before  setting,  the  tops  should 
be  mostly  cut  off,  and  this  is  especially  important  if  they 
are  weak  and  spindling,  as  they  are  then  very  sure  to  turn 
yellow  and  die.  If  the  roots  are  excessively  long,  they  may 
be  shortened  to  facilitate  transplanting. 

The  plants  are  generally  set  in  small  furrows  opened 
with  a  hand  cultivator  or  with  a  marker.     The  lower  part 


ONIONS  179 

of  the  bulb  should  be  about  an  inch  deep  in  the  ground. 
The  plants  are  easily  moved,  and  if  the  soil  is  well  firmed 
they  are  very  sure  to  live.  About  150,000  plants  are 
required  for  an  acre,  and  it  is  a  big  job  to  transplant  them. 
For  this  purpose  children  can  generally  be  employed  at 
low  wages  and  they  will  do  the  work  very  well  if  carefully 
looked  after.  The  expense  of  transplanting  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  $25  to  $50  per  acre.  Subsequent  culti- 
vation is  the  same  as  for  a  field  crop  of  onions. 

Marketing. — In  a  general  way  the  directions  for  market- 
ing onions  apply  to  any  other  crop.  They  should  be 
sold  as  soon  as  a  fair  price  can  be  obtained  for  them,  and 
not  stored  unless  there  is  a  good  chance  of  a  rise.  In 
some  localities  there  is  a  large  demand  for  onions  for 
bunching  purposes  before  the  bulbs  are  formed.  In  these 
places  it  will  sometimes  pay  to  pull  and  sell  the  crop  before 
the  tops  have  died  down,  but  generally  it  should  be  allowed 
to  ripen.  The  foreign  kinds  such  as  can  only  be  raised 
here  by  transplanting  method,  are  generally  highest  in 
price  in  early  autumn  and  should  then  be  sold.  The  tops 
should  always  be  removed  before  the  bulbs  are  marketed, 
and  all  small  bulbs  should  be  picked  out  and  sold  sepa- 
rately for  pickling  purposes. 

Most  markets  prefer  onions  of  medium  size,  globular 
rather  than  flat  in  shape,  and  yellow  or  white  in  color  rather 
than  red.  Very  large  onions  of  the  common  type  are  not 
so  salable  as  those  of  medium  size;  but  of  the  foreign  kinds 
the  larger  the  better,  and  good  specimens  sometimes  weigh 
as  much  as  two  pounds.  When  marketed  in  quantities 
they  are  often  sold  by  the  hundred-pound  sack. 

Yields.— The  United  States  produced  about  $10,000,000 
worth  of  onions  in  1908  and  imported  about  1,400,000 
bushels  from  Spain,  Bermuda,  and  other  countries.  Grow- 


180  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

ers  average  from  three  to  five  hundred  bushels  per  acre. 
Skillful  growers  get  yields  of  from  800  to  1000  bushels  per 
acre. 

Onions  for  the  home  garden  should  be  raised  partly 
from  seed  and  partly  from  sets  or  transplanting.  The  small 
onions  picked  out  from  one  season's  crop  may  be  used  as 
sets  for  the  next  year,  when  they  will  give  a  much  earlier 
crop  than  those  grown  from  seed. 

Varieties. — For  general  field  crops  in  the  Northwest 
varieties  of  the  Globe  type  are  now  the  most  popular. 


m 


Fig.  68.     Varieties  of  onions;    /,   Southport  Yellow  Globe;  2,   Silver  Skin;  3, 
Red  Globe;  4,  Prizetaker;  5,   Yellow  Danver. 

Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Red,  Yellow,  and 
White,  Globe  onions.  The  Yellow  Danvers  is  another  of 
the  Globe  type.  Red  Wethersfield  is  the  old  standard  red 
flat  variety,  not  as  desirable  as  the  Globe.  The  earliest 
maturing  large  kind  is  Extra  Early  Red.  For  raising  sets, 
the  Yellow  Dutch,  called  also  Yellow  Strasburg,  is  the  best, 
but  any  variety  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  For  growing 
in  hotbeds,  greenhouses,  or  window  boxes  and  transplanting 
to  the  open  ground,  the  Prizetaker  and  the  Southport 
Yellow  Globe  are  most  in  demand. 


ONIONS 


181 


Potato  onions  and  shallots  are  always  grown  from 
the  bulbs,  which  increase  in  size  and  also  produce  a  cluster 
of  bulbs  (cloves)  around  the  one  that  is  planted.  They  are 
especially  adapted  to  early  marketing  in  the  same  way  as 
onion  sets. 

Egyptian,  or  Perennial  Tree,  Onion. — This  kind  is 
perfectly  hardy  and  does  not  form  bulbs,  but  the  blanched 

stem  is  used  in  a  green 
state.  It  produces  no  seed, 
but  instead  has  a  small 
cluster  of  bulblets  where 
the  seed  cluster  should 
be.  These  bulblets  are 
planted  in  September  in 
the  same  way  as  recom- 
mended for  onion  sets  and 
are  ready  for  use  as  bunch 
onions  very  early  the 
following  season. 

Top  onions  is  a  name 
applied  to  a  class  of  onions 
that  produce  no  seed,  but 
where  the  seed  should  be 
have  a  cluster  of  small 
bulbs.  These  small  bulbs 
when  planted  grow  into 
large  common  onions,  and 
when  these  common  on- 

Fig.  69.  Field  of  seed  onions  in  bloom,  ions  are  planted  they 
Minnesota.  (Photo  courtesy  The  Farmer.)  procjuce  a  crop  Qf  sets< 

Onion  seed  is  raised  by  planting  out  the  bulbs  in  the 
spring  in  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  for  this  purpose  bulbs 


182  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

of  the  greatest  excellence  are  used.  It  is  best  to  set  the 
bulbs  about  six  inches  deep  and  six  inches  apart  in  each 
furrow,  and  to  do  this  planting  out  very  early  in  the  spring. 
The  seed  stalks  will  attain  a  height  of  about  three  feet.  The 
seed  clusters  ripen  somewhat  unevenly,  but  should  be 
gathered  before  they  are  quite  dry,  or  the  seed  will  shell  out 
and  be  lost.  When  gathered,  they  should  be  dried  in  airy 
chambers  and  afterwards  threshed  out  and  cleaned  with  a 
fanning  mill,  or  they  may  be  cleaned  by  being  thrown  into 
water.  The  latter  method  insures  the  best  seed.  All 
seeds  that  are  full  and  plump  will  sink  in  water,  and  as  the 
chaff  and  lighter  seeds  float  they  are  readily  separated  from 
the  good  seed.  Some  of  the  seeds  that  float  will  grow,  but 
are  not  very  desirable  for  planting.  The  same  land  that 
grows  a  crop  of  onion  seed  is  sometimes  used  for  growing  a 
crop  of  cucumbers  or  melons  at  the  same  time,  since  the 
onions  do  not  shade  the  land  or  take  much  nourishment 
from  it  except  early  in  the  spring. 

COMMON  GARLIC  (A Ilium  sativum] 

Description. — Native  of  southern  Europe.  A  peren- 
nial. All  parts  of  the  plant  have  the  well-known  strong, 
burning  taste.  The  bulbs  or  beads  are  composed  of  about 
ten  cloves  enveloped  by  a  very  thin,  white  or  rose-colored 
membranous  skin.  The  plant  hardly  ever  flowers,  and  is 
grown  by  means  of  the  cloves,  for  which  purpose  those  on 
the  outside  of  the  cluster  should  be  used.  These  should  be 
planted  in  good  rich  soil  in  about  the  same  way  as  onion 
sets.  They  should  be  gathered  after  the  bulb  clusters  are 
well  formed.  This  vegetable  is  scarcely  used  in  the  North ; 
in  southern  European  countries  it  is  quite  common. 
It  is  said  that  it  has  a  much  stronger  burning  taste  when 


LEEK 


183 


grown  in  the  north  than  when  grown  in  the  south.     What 
is  known  as  common  garlic  is  the  kind  most  generally  used. 


Fig.  70.     /,  French  shallots;  2,  top  onions  (red);  3,    Jersey  shallots;    4, 
garlic;  5,  potato  onions. 

LEEKS  (Attium  porrum) 

Description. — Said  to  be  a  native  of  Switzerland.  A 
biennial.  The  leek  is  closely  allied  to  the  onion,  which  it 
resembles  in  flavor,  color  of  seed,  and  flower.  It  does  not 
form  a  bulb,  however,  but  a  straight  bunch  of  leaves,  which 
are  used  almost  entirely  in  a  fresh  or  uncooked  condition. 
The  leaves  are  flat  instead  of  round  and  hollow,  as  is  the  case 
with  onions.  As  yet  this  vegetable  is  little  grown  in  this 
country,  except  around  the  large  cities. 

Cultivation. — Its  requirements  are  about  the  same, 
and  it  may  be  cultivated  in  much  the  same  way,  as  the 
onion,  but  it  is  more  common  to  sow  the  seed  early  in  spring 
and  transplant  in  summer,  setting  plants  very  deep,  as  the 


184  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

market  value  depends  on  the  blanched  condition  of  the 
stem ;  and  for  the  same  reason  in  hoeing  the  soil  is  drawn  up 
over  the  stem.  They  transplant  very 
easily  when  the  soil  is  moist,  but 
should  have  the  tops  trimmed  off  as 
recommended  in  transplanting  onions. 
If  they  are  not  transplanted,  especial 
care  should  be  taken  to  draw  the  soil 
towards  the  plants  in  hoeing.  They 
may  be  stored  in  the  same  manner  as 
celery,  and  are  marketed  in  bunches 
the  same  as  green  onions. 

Varieties. — There  are  several  va- 

Fig.  71.     Leek.  ...  i  •    L  r  j        i 

neties,  which  vary  in  form  and  color. 

Large  Flag  leek  is  a  popular  sort  and  is,  perhaps,  more 
largely  grown  than  any  other. 

Scotch  Flag  or  Musselburgh  leek  is  longer  than  the 
Large  Flag  but  not  quite  as  thick. 

CHIVES  (Allium  schoenoprasum) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  perennial.  A 
hardy  plant  growing  in  thick  tufts.  Bulbs  are  oval, 
scarcely  as  large  as  a  hazelnut,  forming  compact  masses; 
leaves  very  numerous,  grass-like  in  appearance,  and  hollow. 
Flower  stems  are  in  terminal  clusters  of  violet-red  flowers 
and  are  usually  barren.  The  tops  have  an  onion-like  flavor 
and  are  used  in  seasoning. 

Culture. — Chives  are  propagated  by  dividing  the 
tufts.  They  are  not  much  used  and  are  generally  grown  as 
edgings  for  beds  in  the  garden,  for  which  purpose  they  are 
a  pretty  ornamental.  It  is  of  the  easiest  culture. 


RHUBARB  185 

THE  BUCKWHEAT  FAMILY  (Order  Polygonaceae) 

The  Buckwheat  Family  includes  herbs  with  alternate 
entire  leaves,  and  stipules  in  the  form  of  sheaths  above  the 
swollen  joints  of  the  stem.  Flowers  mostly  perfect,  with  a 
one-celled  ovary  bearing  two  or  three  styles  or  stigmas. 
Fruit  usually  an  achene,  either  flattened  or  three-or  four- 
angled  or  winged.  Sometimes  agreeably  acid,  as  sorrel, 
and  sometimes  cathartic,  as  the  roots  of  rhubarb.  Only 
rhubarb  is  here  discussed,  but  other  familiar  plants  that 
belong  to  this  order  are  sorrel,  bitter  curled  and  other  docks, 
knotwood,  smartweed,  bindweed,  or  wild  buckwheat,  and 
field  buckwheat. 

RHUBARB,  OR  PIE  PLANT  (Rheum  rhaponticum) 

Description. — The  cultivated  varieties  of  rhubarb  are  gen- 
erally supposed  to  have  come  from  Mongolia,  though  it  is 
quite  possible  that  some  varieties  may  have  sprung  from 
a  North  American  species.  The  plant  is  an  herbaceous 
perennial  whose  leaf  stalks  are  used  for  sauce,  pies,  etc. 
It  sends  up  a  flower  stalk  often  four  feet  high,  and  produces 
a  large  amount  of  seed  each  year.  It  is  perfectly  hardy 
in  gardens,  even  in  very  severe  situations,  and  when  once 
planted  continues  to  yield  abundant  crops  for  many  years. 
The  seeds  are  large  and  triangular. 

Culture. — Rhubarb  is  readily  increased  from  the  seed, 
which  germinates  quickly.  Seedlings  vary  considerably 
but  not  enough  to  prevent  this  method  of  propagation 
from  being  the  one  most  commonly  practiced.  They 
attain  good  transplanting  size  in  one  year.  It  is  customary 
to  sow  the  seed  in  rows  three  feet  apart  early  in  the  spring, 
and  to  set  out  the  plants  when  one  year  old  where  they  are 
to  grow;  the  plants  may  be  also  be  thinned  out  and  a  few 
allowed  to  remain  where  the  seeds  are  sown.  When  it  is 


186 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


desired  to  propagate  the  specially  valuable  qualities  of 
individual  plants,  it  is  done  by  dividing  the  roots,  using 
care  to  take  at  least  one  good  bud  with  each  piece  of  root. 
This  is  the  only  sure  way  of  getting  the  best  plants. 


Fig.  72.     Rhubarb  plants  in  flower. 

It  is  preferable  to  set  the  plants  out  in  the  fall  where 
they  are  to  grow,  but  early  spring  planting  is  often  followed. 
They  should  be  set  in  the  richest  of  land,  four  feet  apart 
each  way.  The  stalks  should  not  be  pulled  up  until  the 
spring  of  the  second  year  and  then  only  to  a  small  extent ; 
the  third  year  they  should  give  a  good  crop.  The  only 
culture  needed  is  to  keep  the  soil  loose,  free  from  weeds,  and  to 
use  plenty  of  manure.  Twenty-five  tons  of  stable  manure 
per  acre  are  sometimes  applied.  Stable  manure  is  better 
than  commercial  fertilizers,  because  it  also  supplies  humus 
and  helps  hold  moisture  in  the  soil.  In  gathering  rhubarb 
the  stalks  should  be  removed  from  the  crown  by  a  jerk 


RHUBARB  18? 

downward  and  sideways,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
be  so  rough  about  it  as  to  pull  the  buds  from  the  crown 
at  the  same  time.  There  is  little  danger  of  pulling  more 
leaves  than  the  plant  can  stand  without  injury,  but  in 
the  case  of  a  young  plantation  it  would  not  be  well  to 
remove  more  than  one-half  of  the  leaves  at  any  one  time. 
The  stalks  are  most  in  demand  early  in  the  spring,  but 
there  is  more  or  less  call  for  them  all  summer.  The 
seed  stalks  should  be  cut  off  as  soon  as  they  appear,  so  as 


Fig.  73.     Pieces  of  rhubarb  roots  cut  off  for  planting  out. 

to  throw  their  strength  into  leaves  and  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  seed,  if  the  largest  amount  of  stalks  is  wanted. 
Forcing  Rhubarb. — For  winter  and  spring  use  rhubarb 
is  often  forced  in  greenhouses  and  cold  frames.  The  roots 
of  any  age  are  taken  up  in  autumn,  crowded  together  under 
the  benches  in  greenhouses  or  placed  in  boxes  or  barrels 
with  a  little  soil  between  them,  and  then  in  February  are 
put  in  any  convenient  place  in  the  greenhouse  or 
in  a  warm  light  room  or  cellar  where  they  start  into 
growth.  They  are  also  planted  out  in  warm  sheds. 
When  a  business  is  made  of  forcing  rhubarb  in  sheds,  two- 


188  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

or  three-year-old  plants  that  have  been  grown  especially  for 
the  purpose  are  generally  used.  No  rhubarb  should  be 
pulled  during  the  summer  from  plants  that  are  to  be  forced 
in  winter. 

Still  another  way  of  forcing  rhubarb  is  by  putting 
a  cold  frame  over  the  plants  in  the  early  spring  where 
they  are  growing  in  the  open  ground.  This  method 
may  be  improved  by  heavily  mulching  the  plants  so 
as  to  keep  out  the  frost  in  winter.  The  roots  are 
sometimes  lifted  in  autumn,  planted  close  together  in 
a  deep  cold  frame,  and  covered  with  leaves  to  keep 
out  frost.  In  March  the  leaves  are  removed  and  the 
sashes  put  on.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  using 
the  sashes  to  the  best  advantage,  but  roots  that  are  dug 
and  then  forced  are  worthless  for  further  planting.  In 
order  to  increase  the  length  of  the  stalks  it  is  a  common 
practice  where  but  a  small  amount  is  grown  to  put  headless 
barrels  over  each  plant  in  the  spring  when  the  leaves  are 
starting  into  growth,  and  in  striving  to  reach  the  light 
the  leaf  stalks  naturally  grow  long  and  tender.  The 
growth  of  rhubarb  treated  in  this  way  may  be  has- 
tened if  heating  manure  is  piled  about  the  barrel.  An  old 
sash  laid  over  the  barrel  is  an  improvement  on  this  method. 

Rhubarb  is  always  forced  in  the  dark,  since  this  allows 
the  formation  of  but  a  very  small  leaf.  For  home  use  a 
hill  may  be  dug  late  in  the  autumn  and  stored  in  a  cool 
place  until  about  the  time  rhubarb  is  wanted,  when  it 
may  be  placed  in  a  warm  cellar,  covered  with  dirt,  and 
watered.  It  soon  will  give  a  supply  of  tender  shoots. 

Varieties. — There  are  several  varieties,  but  the  follow- 
ing kinds  are  the  most  highly  esteemed: — 

Myatt's  Linneus,  an  early  sort  having  deep  green 
stalks  and  attaining  to  a  large  size. 


BEETS  189 

Myatt's  Victoria,  a  much  later  kind  than  the  preceding; 
stalks  red,  very  thick  and  large. 

THE  GOOSEFOOT  FAMILY  (Order  Chenopodiaceae) 

The  Goosefoot  Family  includes  chiefly  homely  herbs 
with  inconspicuous  greenish  flowers.  The  ovary  is  one- 
celled  and  one-seeded.  Leaves  are  chiefly  alternate. 
Besides  the  beet,  mangel-wurzel,  Swiss  chard,  and  spinach, 
whose  cultural  directions  are  here  given,  this  family  in- 
cludes such  weeds  as  Russian  thistle,  goosefoot,  and  lamb's 
quarter  or  pigweed. 

BEET  (Beta  vulgaris) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  biennial.  This 
plant  in  the  first  year  of  its  growth  forms  a  fleshy  root, 
and  goes  to  seed  the  second  year.  The  seed  stalk  is  about 
four  feet  high.  What  is  usually  sold  and  planted  as  beet 
seed  is  in  reality  a  fruit,  and  is  made  up  of  several  seeds 
imbedded  in  corn-like  calyxes;  the  seed  itself  is  very 
small  and  kidney-shaped,  with  a  thin,  brown  skin.  The 
roots  vary  greatly  in  form  and  size  and  in  color  from  a 
reddish  white  to  a  deep  dark  red.  Some  varieties  have 
special  qualities  for  table  use,  while  others  are  valuable 
for  feeding  stock  or  for  sugar  only. 

The  garden  beet  is  easily  grown  and  is  a  very  reliable  crop. 
It  prefers  a  very  rich,  sandy,  well-worked  soil,  but  will 
grow  in  any  land  that  is  fit  for  corn.  For  early  use  some 
early-maturing  kind  should  be  selected,  and  the  seeds 
should  be  sown  in  rows  sixteen  inches  apart  in  the 
open  ground  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in 
the  spring.  Ten  seeds  should  be  sown  to  each  foot  of 
row  and  covered  one  inch  deep.  The  young  plants  will 
stand  quite  a  severe  frost  without  injury. 


190 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


As  soon  as  the  seedlings  appear  they  should  be  culti- 
vated with  the  wheel  hoe,  and  the  cultivation  repeated 
at  frequent  intervals.  When  they  are  eight  or  ten  inches 
high,  thinning  should  be  commenced  and  continued 
until  the  plants  are  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  These 

thinnings  make  excellent  greens. 
If  sown  as  recommended,  they 
will  be  large  enough  for  table  use 
in  June  and  will  be  good  for  use 
the  rest  of  the  summer.  For 
winter  use,  the  seed  should  not 
be  sown  until  the  last  of  May  or 
first  of  June.  For  late  planting 
some  growers  prefer  to  put  the 
rows  two  feet  or  more  apart  so 
that  when  the  plants  are  nicely 
started  they  can  be  cultivated 
by  horse  power. 

Stock  and  sugar  beets  should 
be  sown  in  rows  about  thirty 
inches  apart,  to  allow  of  easy 
cultivation.  Seed  should  be  sown 
from  the  middle  to  the  last  of 
May,  and  covered  somewhat 
deeper  than  is  recommended  for  early  table  beets,  per- 
haps one  and  one-half  inches  deep.  The  importance  of 
very  early  and  constant  cultivation  cannot  be  too  strongly 
insisted  on. 

Beet  seed  may  be  sown  by  a  machine  seed  sower,  but 
most  of  the  sowers  in  use  will  need  a  little  more  careful 
watching  when  sowing  this  than  most  other  seeds,  as  the 
rough  seeds  (fruit)  are  apt  to  clog  the  feed  hole.  There 
are  a  few  beet  seed  sowing  machines  adapted  for  horse 


Fig.  74.  A  bunch  of  Eclipse  beets. 


BEETS  191 

power  that  it  will  probably  pay  one  to  use  where  a  large 
amount  of  land  is  to  be  cultivated  in  beets.  About  six 
pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre,  and  it  is  always  a 
good  plan  to  sow  an  abundance  of  seed,  as  it  does  not 
start  very  uniformly.  Beets  yield  from  three  to  four 
hundred  bushel  per  acre,  often  bringing  a  gross  income  of 
$150  to  $500  per  acre. 

Forcing  Beets. — Beets  are  easily  forced  by  sowing 
the  early-maturing  kinds  in  February  or  March  in  hotbeds, 
where  they  may  be  left  to  mature  or  may  be  transplanted 
when  of  proper  size.  It  is,  however,  best  to  allow  them 
to  grow  to  table  size  without  transplanting,  which  always 
puts  the  plants  back  and  from  which  they  recover  slowly. 

Harvesting  and  Keeping  Beets. — On  the  approach 
of  severe  weather — in  Northern  sections  about  the  middle 
of  October — beets  should  be  pulled  and  the  tops  cut  or 
twisted  off,  but  the  top  of  the  root  should  not  be  cut 
off.  Light  frosts  do  not  hurt  them  much,  especially 
when  they  are  protected  by  a  heavy  growth  of  foliage, 
but  when  the  surface  of  the  ground  freezes  hard  there 
is  danger  of  permanent  injury  to  the  roots.  Beets 
are  easily  kept  in  a  cold  cellar.  It  is  generally  best  to 
pit  them  outside  when  dug  and  allow  them  to  remain  there 
until  severe  weather  sets  in.  If  the  air  of  the  cellar  is 
very  dry  the.  beets  should  be  covered  with  earth  after  being 
put  into  bins,  or  they  will  wilt  and  become  corky.  Beet 
seed  is  grown  by  planting  out  the  roots  about  the  middle 
of  May,  two  feet  apart  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  The 
seed  ripens  in  the  summer  and  is  generally  threshed  off 
as  soon  as  ripe. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  garden  beets, 
and  they  vary  considerably  in  size,  form,  and  color,  time 


192  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

of  maturing,  and  other  characteristics.  Among  the  most 
valuable  are  the  following: — 

Eclipse,  a  very  early,  dark-red,  turnip-shaped  beet 
of  good  quality.  Valuable  for  early  or  late  sowing.  A  favorite 
with  market  gardeners. 

Egyptian,  valuble  for  early  sowing. 

Bastian's  Early  Turnip  Beets,  a  valuable  early  sort, 
tender,  sweet  and  good  in  every  way;  one  of  the  best  for 
early  or  late  planting. 

Crosby's  Egyptian,  a  very  early  blood  turnip.  The 
Detroit  Dark  Red  turnip  is  very  easily  grown. 

Diseases  of  Beets. — The  beet  is  subject  to  several 
diseases,  and  it  is  most  healthy  when  grown  on  new  land. 

Beet  scab  is  a  disease  which  ruptures  the  skin  of  the 
beet  in  a  manner  similar  to  scab  on  potatoes.  Recent  investi- 
gations show  that  this  disease  is  the  same  as  potato  scab. 
On  this  account,  beets  should  not  follow  potatoes  on  land 
that  has  grown  a  scabby  crop  unless  there  is  an  interval 
of  several  years  between  them.  Beets  are  sometimes 
subject  to  a  rust  that  injures  the  foliage,  but  seldom  very 
seriously. 

Stock  Eeets  (often  called  mangel-wurzel). — Stock  beets 
are  gross  feeders  and  prefer  rich  soil.  They  require  the 
same  care  as  table  beets,  but  the  rows  should  be  thirty 
inches  apart,  so  as  to  allow  of  cultivating  them  with  horse 
implements.  The  seed  may  be  sown  with  any  common 
garden  drill  after  first  laying  off  the  rows  with  a  marker, 
or  it  may  be  sown  with  a  common  grain  drill  by  stopping 
the  flow  of  seed  through  a  part  of  the  holes.  It  is  a  very 
good  plan  to  sow  radish  or  rutabaga  seed  with  the  beet 
seed,  as  it  starts  quickly  and  the  line  of  the  row  is  thus 
easily  seen,  so  that  cultivation  may  be  started  early. 
This  is  very  important  in  land  that  is  somewhat  weedy. 


SWISS  CHARD  193 

About  six  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  will  give  about  twelve 
seeds  (fruits)  to  a  foot. 

There  are  many  good  varieties  of  stock  beets.  Among 
the  best  are  Long  Red,  Yellow,  or  Golden  Tankard, 
Yellow  Globe,  and  American  Sugar.  The  latter  is  not 
a  true  sugar  beet,  but  is  much  richer  in  sugar  than  the 
ordinary  varieties  of  stock  beets  and,  possibly,  of  better 
feeding  value. 

Sugar  beets,  from  which  is  made  a  large  amount  of 
the  sugar  of  commerce,  are  grown  in  a  similar  way  to 
stock  beets,  but  on  a  large  scale 
they  require  a  rather  different 
and  special  treatment.  There 
is  no  trouble  about  raising  them 
with  a  large  percentage  of  sugar 
in  any  of  the  Northern  states, 
but  the  drawbacks  to  beet  grow- 
ing as  a  general  industry  are 
the  very  expensive  machinery 
required  to  extract  the  sugar 

economically  on  a    large    scale,  Fig  75  Wgugar  beet. 

the  small  margin  of  profit,  and 
the  low  price  the  manufacturers  have  been  willing  to  pay 
for  the  beets.  Sugar  beets  grow  entirely  below  ground, 
which  makes  them  difficult  to  dig,  and  they  do  not  grow 
to  a  large  size,  seldom  weighing  more  than  four  pounds. 
The  part  of  a  beet  above  ground  does  not  contain  much 
sugar.  It  is  recommended  to  sow  about  18  pounds  of  seed 
per  acre. 

LEAF  BEET,  OR  SWISS  CHARD 

Description. — Native  of  southern  Europe.  A  biennial. 
This  appears  to  be  exactly  the  same  plant  as  the  common 


194 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Fig.  76.     Swiss  chard. 


beet,  except  that  in  its  case  cultivation  and  selection 

have  developed  the  leaves  in- 
stead of  the  root.  The  botani- 
cal characteristics,  especially  of 
the  fruit  seed  and  flowers,  are 
precisely  alike  in  both  plants. 
The  root  is  branched  and  not 
very  fleshy;  and  the  leaves  are 
large  and  numerous,  with  the 
stalk  and  midrib  fleshy  and 
very  large.  The  plants  vary  in 
color  from  deep  red  to  nearly 
white.  The  fleshy  leaf  stalks  are 
cooked  and  served  like  asparagus. 
Culture.  —  The  plants  are 
grown  in  the  same  manner  as 

the  common  table  beets.      Among  the  best  varieties  is 

one  known  as  the  Silvery  Swiss  chard. 

SPINACH  (Spinacia  oleracea) 

Description. — Properly  a  native  of  western  Asia. 
An  annual  plant  cultivated  for  its  leaves,  which  form 
popular  spring  and  early  summer  greens.  It  has  a  seed  stalk 
about  two  feet  high.  The  varieties  are  divided  accord- 
ing to  their  seeds  into  round  and  prickly-seeded  sorts. 
The  latter  have  sharp,  hard  prickles  on  the  seeds.  This 
division  is  so  pronounced  that  some  botanists  have  treated 
these  classes  as  distinct  species.  The  prickly-seeded 
sorts  are  regarded  as  hardier,  while  some  of  the  round 
seeded  kinds  are  perhaps  the  most  desirable  varieties 
for  table  use;  but  this  difference  is  not  always  very  clear. 

Culture. — The  seed  of  spinach  may  be  sown  in  hotbeds 
or  cold  frames  very  early  in  spring,  or  outdoors  as  soon  as 


SPINACH  195 

the  ground  can  be  worked.  It  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  A 
supply  may  be  had  during  the  whole  growing  season  by 
making  a  succession  of  sowings  at  intervals  of  about  two 
weeks.  Under  good  conditions  it  will  be  ready  for  table 
use  in  about  six  weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed. 
In  planting  it  outdoors  the  rows  should  be  about  twelve 
inches  apart.  The  seed 
should  be  covered  about 
one  inch  deep  and  about 
forty  seeds  or  more  sown 
to  the  foot  of  row.  It 
is  well  to  use  plenty  of 
seed,  and  since  it  often 
starts  poorly  in  dry  weath- 
er extra  precautions  are 

,  ,  .          .  Fig.  77.     Spinach. 

taken  when  sowing  it  at 

that  time.     The  plants  may  be  thinned  out  when  too 

thick,  and  no  matter  how  small  they  are  they  form  a  good 

vegetable. 

Spinach  is  often  sown  in  the  spring  among  early  peas, 
cabbage,  potatoes,  or  other  slow-growing  crop.  For  early 
spring  use,  the  seeds  of  the  hardiest  kinds  should  be  sown 
in  Northern  sections  the  latter  part  of  August.  The  plants 
should  grow  well  and  attain  a  good  size  during  the  cool 
weather  of  autumn,  and  on  the  approach  of  winter  they 
should  be  covered  with  about  two  inches  of  straw,  hay,  or 
similar  material.  When  thus  treated  the  crop  generally 
comes  through  the  winter  without  serious  injury,  and  after 
making  a  little  growth  in  the  spring  is  marketable.  It  is 
harvested  by  cutting  the  plants  off  at  the  top  of  the  ground. 
For  this  purpose  a  short  push  hoe  is  run  under  the  plants. 
They  are  then  freed  from  dead  leaves,  and  after  being 
washed  are  ready  for  marketing. 


396  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Spinach  requires  a  very  rich  soil  and  plenty  of  well- 
rotted  manure.  To  secure  the  best  results  from  early 
spring  sowings,  it  will  pay  those  raising  it  for  market  to 
use  nitrate  of  soda  on  the  land  in  small  quantities,  say  two 
applications  at  the  rate  of  seventy-five  pounds  per  acre  at 
intervals  of  two  weeks  after  the  crop  has  started.  This 
material  has  a  wonderful  effect  on  early  leaf  crops.  Where 
nitrate  of  soda  is  not  used,  hen  manure  is  very  desirable. 
The  effect  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  this  crop  is  very  marked  and 
often  results  in  more  than  doubling  its  size.  Spinach  gen- 
erally is  very  free  from  insects  and  fungous  diseases. 

Varieties. — There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  spinach, 
differing  in  earliness,  hardiness,  and  in  the  time  they 
remain  in  the  edible  condition,  as  well  as  in  many  minor 
matters.  Among  the  best  are  the  following: — 

Long  Standing,  an  excellent  sort  for  spring  and  summer 
sowing,  since  it  stands  longer  than  any  other  sort  before 
going  to  seed. 

Prickly,  or  Winter,  a  prickly  seed  variety  that  is  very 
popular.  It  will  withstand  very  severe  weather  without 
serious  injury  if  lightly  protected  by  hay  or  straw,  and  is 
probably  the  best  sort  for  autumn  planting  in  this  section. 

Bloomsdale,  a  nice  hardy  sort  with  long,  curled  leaves 
of  excellent  quality.  Very  hardy. 

THE  CABBAGE  FAMILY  (Order  Cruciferae) 

The  Cabbage  Family  is  made  up  of  herbaceous  plants 
having  watery  juice,  a  pungent  (peppery)  taste,  and  floral 
envelopes  arranged  on  the  plan  of  four,  with  their  petals 
generally  spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Stamens  six, 
two  of  which  are  shorter  than  the  other  four.  Seed  all 
embryo.  This  is  a  large  family  and,  besides  the  cabbage, 
includes  cauliflower,  Brussels  sprouts,  kale,  kohl-rabi, 


CABBAGE 


197 


horseradish,  cress,  water  cress,  whose  cultural  directions 
are  given  under  this  head ;  among  common  weeds,  the  mus- 
tard, French  weed,  false  flax,  pepper  cress,  shepherd's  purse; 
and  many  garden  flowers,  such  as  nasturtium,  gillyflower, 
candytuft,  and  alyssum. 

CABBAGE  (Brassica  oleracea) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe  and  western  Asia.     A 
biennial.     It  grows  wild  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet, 


Fig.  78.  Cross  section  of  cabbage  head,  showing 
arrangement  of  stem  and  leaves,  and  that  it  is  simply 
a  big  terminal  bud. 

and  scarcely  resembles  any  of  our  cultivated  kinds.  The 
part  of  cabbage  eaten  is  termed  the  head,  and  is  simply  a 
cluster  of  leaves  enwrapping  the  top  of  the  stem,  or  is,  in 
other  words,  a  large  bud.  It  attains  the  height  of  three  or 
four  feet  and  then  goes  to  seed.  The  flowers  are  generally 
yellow  in  color,  and  conspicuous,  though  not  large. 


198  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

There  are  three  great  groups  of  cabbages,  distinguished, 
respectively,  by  (1)  red  leaves,  (2)  smooth  leaves,  and  (3) 
wrinkled  leaves.  Red  cabbages  are  esteemed  chiefly  for 
pickling.  The  varieties  with  smooth,  light-green  leaves 
(common  cabbage)  are  commonly  cultivated;  while  the 
Savoy  cabbage,  which  has  wrinkled  leaves,  and  is  of  the 
best  quality,  is  little  grown  because  it  does  not  produce  as 
abundantly  as  the  common  kinds.  The  original  species 
from  which  the  cabbage  has  sprung  is  also  the  parent  of  the 
cauliflower,  kale,  and  Brussels  sprouts.  The  seed  of  the 
cabbage  is  dark  brown  in  color,  and  is  smooth  and  round. 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  cabbage  is  a  rich  alluvial  or 
prairie  loam,  moist,  yet  well  drained  and  in  fine  condition. 
While  some  varieties  will  mature  on  poor  soil,  yet  they  all 
require  the  highest  cultivation  for  the  best  development. 
This  is  especially  true  of  early  cabbage,  which  needs  much 
richer  soil  than  the  late  crop.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  change 
occasionally  the  land  used  for  cabbage;  in  some  Eastern 
sections  it  is  necessary  to  do  this  each  year  on  account  of 
the  prevalence  of  the  disease  called  clubroot,  which  is  not 
commonly  found  in  newer  sections. 

Manure. — The  cabbage  is  a  gross  feeder  and  needs  lots  of 
rich  manure.  Most  of  our  best  growers  apply  manure 
broadcast;  but  when  there  is  a  necessity  of  economizing 
with  the  manure,  it  may  be  applied  to  better  advantage  in 
the  hill,  providing  the  land  is  in  good  condition.  In  grow- 
ing early  cabbage  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  apply  a  handful 
or  so  of  dry  hen  manure  around  the  hills  when  the  plants 
are  half  grown.  This  should  not  be  put  close  to  the  plants, 
but  scattered  over  a  radius  of  a  foot  or  more  from  the  plants 
and  then  cultivated  into  the  soil. 

Early  Cabbage. — The  methods  of  cultivating  adapted 
to  the  growing  of  early  cabbage  are  quite  different  from 


CABBAGE  199 

those  followed  in  raising  late  cabbage,  and  the  subject  of 
cultivation  naturally  groups  itself  under  these  heads.  The 
soil  preferred  for  early  cabbage  is  a  light,  rich,  sandy  loam, 
well  drained,  and  sloping  to  the  south,  providing  it  is  not 
too  liable  to  injury  from  drouth.  In  milder  sections  of  the 
country  it  is  customary  to  sow  the  seed  for  early  cabbage  in 
September,  and  winter  the  plants  over  in  cold  frames. 
This  method  is  impracticable  in  the  extreme  Northern 
states,  and  the  best  plan  to  follow  in  such  sections  is  that 
of  sowing  the  seed  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds  from  the  middle 
to  the  last  of  February.  As  the  plants  need  room  they  are 
transplanted  so  as  not  to  be  crowded.  If  they  are  kept 
growing  freely  they  will  be  large  enough  to  transplant  to 
the  open  ground  by  the  first  of  April. 

Setting  the  Plants. — Cabbage  plants  will  grow  at  a 
low  temperature,  and  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  plant  them 
out  early  in  the  spring,  although  the  weather  may  be 
damp  and  cold.  At  this  season  of  the  year  they  may 
not  show  any  great  increase  in  leaf  surface,  but  they  form 
roots  rapidly,  and  these  are  a  great  help  in  providing  a 
vigorous  growth  later  in  the  season.  As  a  rule,  early 
cabbage  should  be  set  out  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  in  the 
spring  and  the  ground  nicely  settled.  It  is  important  to 
set  the  plants  deep  in  the  ground  at  this  season,  and  since 
the  stem  is  the  part  most  liable  to  injury  from  hard  frosts 
it  should  be  set  deep  enough  to  bring  the  base  of  the  leaves 
below  the  ground.  This  is  very  important,  and  fre- 
quently makes  the  difference  between  success  and  failure 
in  growing  the  early  crop. 

If  severe  weather  is  threatened  after  the  plants  are 
set  out,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  draw  a  hoeful  of  earth  over 
each  plant;  for  if  frozen  when  they  are  covered  with  earth 
they  will  not  be  injured,  and  they  can  remain  buried  in  the 


200  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

ground  several  days  in  cold  weather  without  serious  injury. 
The  earth  should  be  removed,  however,  as  soon  as  good 
weather  is  assured.  The  distance  between  the  plants  will 
depend  somewhat  on  the  varieties  to  be  cultivated;  under 
ordinary  conditions  the  large,  early  kinds  should  be  set  out 
two  feet  apart  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  This  arrangement 
permits  of  horse  cultivation  both  ways  when  the  plants 
are  young  and  one  way  when  they  are  full  grown. 

Cultivation  should  commence  as  soon  as  the  rows  can 
be  clearly  seen,  and  should  be  repeated  after  each  rain  or 
at  least  once  a  week  until  the  crop  is  grown.  For  this 
purpose  a  fine-tooth  horse  cultivator  is  the  most  desirable 
instrument,  and  if  the  work  is  carefully  done  there  will 
be  very  little  need  of  hand  hoeing.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
draw  the  earth  slightly  toward  the  plants  when  they  are 
about  half  grown. 

Harvesting  the  Crop. — Treated  in  this  way,  under 
ordinary  conditions  they  will  be  nicely  '  'headed  up"  by 
the  first  of  July  and  ready  for  marketing.  The  season 
for  marketing,  however,  will  depend  largely  on  the  kinds 
grown.  If  the  land  is  at  once  plowed  when  the  crop  is 
harvested,  it  can  be  used  for  growing  some  late  crop,  as 
late  beans,  spinach,  or  celery.  By  care  in  sowing  and  in 
selecting  varieties,  early  cabbage  may  be  continued  till 
late  cabbage  is  in  the  market. 

Retarding  the  heading  of  cabbages  may  be  accom- 
plished by  starting  the  roots  on  one  side  of  the  head  or  by 
slightly  pulling  the  plant  so  as  to  break  some  of  the  roots. 
This  is  very  important  some  seasons,  as  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  the  market  over-stocked  with  this  vegetable  just 
as  the  crop  is  full  grown,  and  if  the  plants  are  allowed 
to  remain  growing  when  once  a  hard  head  is  formed  they 
are  very  sure  to  burst  and  be  spoiled.  By  starting  the 


CABBAGE  201 

roots  a  little,  the  growth  is  checked  and  the  heads  may  be 
kept  from  spoiling  for  a  week  or  more. 

Late  cabbage  is  a  term  generally  given  to  cabbage 
grown  from  seed  sown  in  the  open  ground.  It  may  be 
ready  for  use  in  September  or  in  the  late  autumn  and  be 
kept  all  winter. 

Soil. — Any  land  that  will  produce  a  good  crop  of  corn 
is  in  good  condition  for  late  cabbage,  but  the  richer  the 
land  the  better  the  chances  of  success.  Less  manure  is 
required  for  late  than  for  early  cabbage.  Late  cabbage 
is  generally  raised  by  sowing  the  seed  in  hills,  or  by  sowing 
it  in  a  seed  bed  and  setting  the  plants  in  the  field  when  of 
sufficient  size.  Each  of  these  methods  has  its  advan- 
tages and  will  be  referred  to  separately  farther  on. 

Sowing  Cabbage  Seed. — Late  cabbage  may  be  raised 
by  sowing  the  seed  in  a  seed  bed  in  the  spring,  in  rows 
twelve  inches  apart,  and  when  the  plants  are  large  enough 
transplanting  them  to  the  field  where  they  are  to  be  grown. 
This  is  the  common  way  of  growing  cabbage.  Its  advan- 
tages are  that  the  plants  may  be  set  out  on  land  that 
has  grown  some  early  crop,  as  peas,  or  on  sod  land  after 
cutting  the  hay.  It  also  insures  having  the  plants  all 
together  in  a  small  space,  where  they  can  be  easily  culti- 
vated and  guarded  when  they  are  young  and  most  liable 
to  serious  injury  from  cut- worms,  flea  beetles,  and  other 
insects  and  from  dry  weather.  It  has  the  disadvantage 
of  requiring  the  plants  to  be  moved  during  the  dry  weather 
of  early  summer,  when  they  are  very  likely  to  fail  from 
lack  of  water  in  the  soil. 

Sowing  the  seed  of  cabbage  in  the  field  where  the 
plants  are  to  mature  and  then  thinning  out  to  one  plant 
to  a  hill,  has  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  the  trans- 
planting of  the  plants  during  dry  weather,  and  as  the 


202  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

plants  are  not  set  back  by  transplanting  they  mature  in 
a  shorter  time  than  transplanted  ones.  This  makes  it 
practicable  to  sow  the  seed  later  than  when  the  plants 
are  to  be  removed,  and  is  sometimes  an  advantage.  It 
has  the  disadvantage,  however,  of  having  the  plants 
scattere'd  over  a  large  area  when  they  are  small  and  liable 
to  attack  by  insect  enemies  and  they  are  more  difficult 
to  cultivate  than  when  in  a  seed  bed.  The  thinnings 
from  the  land  where  seed  is  sown  in  the  hill  may  be  set 
elsewhere. 

Raising  Cabbage  by  Transplanting. — If  the  plants 
are  to  be  raised  in  a  seed  bed  and  then  transplanted  to 
the  open  ground,  the  seed  of  such  varieties  as  Late  Flat 
Dutch  should  be  sown  about  the  10th  of  May;  but  if 
Fotler's  Improved  Brunswick  or  other  second  early  kind 
is  to  be  grown,  the  seed  should  not  be  sown  until  at  least 
ten  days  later;  and  such  large,  early-heading  varieties 
as  Early  Summer  may  be  successfully  raised  for  winter 
use  when  their  seed  is  sown  as  late  as  the  first  of  June.  In 
any  case  the  plants  should  be  ready  to  set  out  by  the  last 
of  June,  when  they  should  be  carefully  transplanted.  The 
land  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  marked  out 
three  feet  apart  each  way,  unless  it  is  to  be  manured  in 
the  hills,  when  it  should  be  furrowed  out  one  way 
and  marked  the  other  way.  The  plants  should  be  set 
at  the  intersections  of  the  marks,  but  it  is  not  a  g'ood  plan 
to  set  them  on  top  of  the  manure,  but  rather  to  put  them 
a  little  to  one  side  of  it.  This  is  especially  important 
if  the  manure  is  not  well  rotted.  The  cultivation  and  after 
treatme'nt  are  the  same  for  late  as  for  early  cabbage. 

Cabbage  from  Seed  Sown  in  the  Hill. — If  the  seed 
is  to  be  sown  in  hills,  the  land  should  be  treated  as  recom- 
mended when  the  plants  are  to  be  transplanted.  It  is 


CABBAGE  203 

generally  necessary  for  success  to  have  the  soil  moist 
when  the  seed  is  sown.  After  the  land  is  marked  out, 
seven  or  eight  seeds  should  be  sown  at  each  intersection, 
covered  with  about  half  an  inch  of  soil,  and  then  pressed 
down  with  the  sole  of  the  foot.  The  plants  generally 
come  up  inside  of  a  week,  and  should  be  hand-hoed  at 
once,  and,  when  large  enough,  cultivated  with  a  horse 
implement.  When  big  enough  to  stand  alone,  take  out 
all  but  one  plant  from  each  hill  and  treat  as  directed  for 
those  that  have  been  transplanted. 

Harvesting  late  cabbage  may  be  done  by  selling  directly 
from  the  field  or  by  storing  for  marketing  during  the  winter. 
If  the  heads  are  nearly  ready  to  burst  they  cannot  be 
kept  long  and  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  There  is 
generally  a  good  demand  in  the  late  autumn  for  this  vege- 
table on  the  general  market  and  also  by  the?  pickling 
factories  for  making  sauerkraut.  Cabbages  will  stand 
ten  degrees  or  more  of  frost,  but  severe  freezing  is  very 
injurious;  they  are  seldom  injured  by  frost  unless 
the  stump  is  frozen  solid.  If  there  is  danger  of  severe 
freezing  before  the  crop  can  be  marketed  or  stored,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  pull  the  plants  and  put  them  into  piles,  with 
the  stumps  inside,  and  cover  the  whole  with  straw  litter. 
Piled  and  covered  this  way  they  may  be  left  in  the  field 
until  severe  freezing  weather,  and  will  generally  be  safe 
in  such  a  condition  in  the  North  until  the  first  of  December. 
At  harvesting  there  may  be  some  heads  that  are  quite 
too  loose  for  marketing,  and  such  cabbage  will  often 
improve  very  much  if  stored  as  recommended  for  seed 
cabbage. 

Storing  Cabbage. — In  order  to  have  cabbages  keep 
well  far  into  the  winter,  they  must  not  be  headed  very 
solid  when  gathered,  but  should  be  a  trifle  soft;  but  there 


204 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


is  quite  a  difference  in  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  different 
varieties.     If  late  varieties  are  sown  too  early,  they  will 


Fig.  79.     Cabbage  pitted  for  winter. 

not  keep  well;  and  if  early  varieties  are  sown  late  so  as  to 
be  in  good  keeping  condition  when  harvested,  they  often 
keep  very  well. 

In  order  to  store  cabbages  successfully,  they  must  be 
kept  cold  and  moist  but  never  allowed  to  get  warm  or 
wet.  Providing  the  cabbage  is  in  good  condition  for 
storing,  it  will  generally  keep  until  spring  if  the  heads 
are  set  together,  in  a  trench,  roots  up,  and  covered  with 
from  six  inches  to  a  foot  of  soil  and  mulch  enough  to  pre- 
vent hard  freezing.  If  they  are  frozen  while  buried  and 
are  thawed  out  in  the  ground,  they  are  seldom  seriously 
injured.  In  sections  of  severe  winters,  however,  a  better 


Fig.  80.     Seed  cabbage  pitted  for  winter. 

plan  is  to  keep  them  in  a  cold,  damp  cellar,  stored  in  bins 
about  four  feet  wide  so  as  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air 


CABBAGE  205 

through  them.  For  commercial  purposes,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  build  store  houses  half  in  and  half  out  of  the  ground. 
In  a  small  way  they  may  be  kept  by  burying  the  heads 
in  sand  in  a  cellar,  or  a  few  cabbages  for  home  use  may 
be  heeled  in  by  the  roots  in  the  cellar;  but  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  decaying  cabbage  is  dangerous  material 
to  have  under  a  dwelling  house,  and  it  should  not  be  per- 
mitted under  any  circumstances.  In  storing  cabbage 
the  loose,  outside  leaves  should  be  removed  and  the  stumps 
always  left  on,  except  when  they  are  to  be  stored  in  bins. 
Cabbage  seed  is  a  somewhat  difficult  crop  to  raise  in 
this  (Minnesota)  section,  the  trouble  being  in  keeping 
the-  plants  over  winter.  It  may  be  done,  however,  if 
care  is  used.  For  this  purpose  the  heads  should  not  be 
permitted  to  get  very  hard;  they  should  be  gathered 
before  the  stumps  have  been  frozen  and  be  set  close  to- 
gether, heads  up,  in  a  trench  and  covered  with  about  a 
foot  of  soil  and  mulching  enough  to  prevent  severe  freezing. 
Cabbage  seed  may  be  raised  from  the  stumps  after  the 
heads  are  cut  off,  and  this  is  a  very  simple  matter,  as  the 
stumps  can  be  buried  like  turnips  or  even  kept  in  bins, 
providing  they  are  covered  with  earth  and  kept  cold; 
but  such  seed  is  not  desirable,  as  the  evidence  seems  to 
show  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  increase  the  length  of 
the  stump  at  the  expense  of  the  head  under  such  treat- 
ment. It  is  generally  agreed  among  our  best  seed  growers 
that  cabbage  seed  should  be  saved  from  the  terminal  buds 
of  the  stem,  which  are  in  the  cabbage  head.  Providing 
the  seed  cabbages  are  successfully  wintered  over,  they 
should  then  be  planted  about  the  1st  of  May  about  three 
feet  apart  in  deep  furrows  four  feet  apart.  Sometimes 
the  seed  stalk  cannot  burst  through  the  head  leaves, 
and  it  is  a  good  plan  where  the  outer  leaves  are  very  thick 


206  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

and  tough  to  cut  through  the  outside  leaves  on  the  top  of 
the  head  a  little  so  as  to  allow  it  to  push  through. 

The  seed  is  gathered  branch  by  branch  as  the  pods 
begin  to  turn  yellow,  and  it  generally  takes  several  cut- 
tings to  harvest  the  seed  pods.  These  are  dried  in  a  room 
having  a  tight  floor  and  the  seed  is  then  threshed  out. 

Varieties. — For  very  early  use  the  Early  Jersey  Wake- 
field  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  variety,  but  the  head  is 
quite  small.  For  second  early  the  Early  Summer  is  perhaps 
the  best  and  is  generally  more  profitable  than  other  early 


Fig.  81.     Three  standard  varieties  of  cabbage:     A  late  variety  (on  the  left), 
Red  Pickling  (middle),  and  Savoy. 

kinds,  since  the  head  is  of  good  size.  The  Early  Win- 
ningstadt  is  a  very  desirable  variety,  forming  very  solid 
heads.  It  is  the  most  reliable  of  all  varieties  for  early 
or  late  use  in  unfavorable  situations.  Fotler's  Improved 
Brunswick  is  a  good  variety  for  second  early  use  or  for 
winter  use  and  is  the  earliest  of  the  large-heading  kinds. 
Flat  Dutch  and  Stone  Mason  are  desirable  winter 
sorts  and  are  good  keepers.  The  best  red  cabbage  is 
perhaps  the  Mammoth  Red  Rock.  The  Savoys  are  of  better 
quality  than  the  ordinary  drumheads  but  do  not  produce 


CABBAGE  207 

so  heavily.  They  are  desirable  for  home  use.  The  best 
of  this  class  is  the  American  Drumhead  Savoy. 

Sauerkraut. — The  following  recipe  for  sauerkraut  is  a 
very  excellent  one:  Slice  cabbage  fine  in  a  slaw  cutter; 
line  the  bottom  and  sides  of  an  oaken  barrel  or  keg  with 
cabbage  leaves,  put  in  a  layer  of  the  sliced  cabbage  about 
six  inches  in  depth,  sprinkle  lightly  with  salt,  and  pound 
with  a  wooden  beetle  until  the  cabbage  is  a  compact  mass; 
add  another  layer  of  cabbage,  etc.,  repeating  the  operation, 
pounding  well  each  layer  until  the  barrel  is  full  to  within 
six  inches  of  the  top;  cover  with  leaves,  then  a  cloth, 
next  cut  a  board  to  fit  loosely  on  the  inside  of  the  barrel  and 
kept  well  down  with  a  heavy  weight.  If  the  brine  has  not 
raised  within  two  days,  add  enough  water  with  just  salt 
enough  to  taste  to  cover  the  cabbage;  examine  every 
two  days  and  add  water  as  before,  until  brine  rises  and 
scum  forms.  Then  lift  off  the  cloth  carefully  so  the  scum 
may  adhere,  wash  well  in  several  cold  waters,  wring  dry, 
and  replace,  repeating  this  operation  as  the  scum  rises, 
at  first  every  other  day,  and  then  once  a  week,  until  the 
acetous  fermentation  ceases,  which  will  take  three  to  six 
weeks.  Up  to  this  time  keep  warm  in  the  kitchen,  and 
then  remove  to  a  dry,  good  cellar,  unless  made  early  in 
the  fall,  when  it  may  be  at  once  set  in  the  pantry  or  cellar. 
One  pint  of  salt  to  a  full  barrel  of  cabbage  is  a  good  pro- 
portion ;  some  also  sprinkle  in  whole  black  pepper. 

Or,  to  keep  until  summer:  In  April  squeeze  out  of 
brine  and  pack  solid  with  the  hands  in  a  stone  jar,  with 
the  bottom  lightly  sprinkled  with"  salt;  make  brine 
enough  to  cover  the  kraut  well  in  the  proportion  of  a 
tablespoon  of  salt  to  a  quart  of  water;  boil,  skim,  cool, 
and  pour  over;  cover  with  cloth,  then  a  plate,  weight, 
and  another  cloth  tied  closely  down;  keep  in  a  cool  place, 


208  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

and  it  will  be  good  as  late  as  June.  Neither  pound  or 
salt  the  cabbage  too  much;  watch  closely  and  keep  clear 
from  scum  for  good  sauerkraut. — Buckeye  Cook  Book. 

Insects. — The  insects  injurious  to  the  cabbage  are 
the  flea  beetle,  cabbage  worms,  cut-worms,  and  flea,  for 
treatment  of  which  see  chapter  on  insects. 

Diseases. — There  are  very  few  diseases  that  seriously 
injure  the  cabbage.  The  most  common  is  clubroot, 
also  called  clubfoot.  The  life  history  of  this  disease 
.is  not  known.  It  attacks  the  roots  of  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, turnips,  and  other  plants  of  the  same  family, 
causing  them  to  form  large,  irregular  swellings.  The 
plant  is  checked  in  growth  and  often  dies  from  the  effects 
of  the  disease.  This  is  not  yet  a  common  disease  in  the 
West,  but  in  some  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle  states  it 
is  very  common.  The  best  way  of  avoiding  it  is  to  not 
use  the  same  land  for  cabbage  or  similar  crop  without 
at  least  three  years  intervening,  during  which  time  it 
is  preferable  to  have  the  land  in  grass  or  clover.  This 
disease  is  also  transmitted  by  pepper  cress,  shepherd's 
purse,  candytuft,  and  similar  plants.  This  disease  may 
also  be  distributed  in  manure  from  animals  fed  on  diseased 
plants. 

Black  rot  of  cabbage  is  a  disease  that  has  not  attract- 
ed much  attention  until  the  last  few  years,  but  has  dur- 
ing that  time  caused  much  damage  to  cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower. 

The  first  indication  of  this  disease  is  upon  the  outer 
leaves  of  the  plant,  which  turn  yellow  and  die  in  spots, 
usually  near  the  margins.  Such  leaves  are  also  apt  to 
wilt,  and  careful  examination  will  show  that  the  veins  in 
and  near  the  dead  areas  are  blackened.  These  spots 
enlarge  and  gradually  involve  the  whole  leaf,  from  which 


CABBAGE  209 

it  passes  to  the  stem  and  to  the  rest  of  the  plant,  causing 
it  to  rot.  The  dark-colored  veins  in  the  freshly  cut  stem 
and  leaves  are  the  best  indications  of  this  disease,  and 
are  its  characteristic  marks. 

Cabbage  that  is  even  slightly  affected  will  not  keep, 
for  this  rot  spreads  rapidly  in  stored  cabbage;  and  in 
selecting  cabbage  for  storage,  the  stems  and  outer  leaves 
should  be  examined  for  the  blackened  vein  so  character- 
istic of  this  disease. 

The  germs  of  the  disease  may  pass  the  winter  in  the 
soil  and  reinfect  cabbage,  cauliflower,  turnips,  or  similar 
crops  and  even  such  nearly  allied  weeds  as  pepper  cress  and 
shepherd's  purse  the  following  season.  If  diseased  cab- 
bage is  fed  to  stock  the  disease  may  be  distributed  with 
the  manure. 

Remedial  Measures. — In  view  of  the  above  facts,  it 
seems  reasonable  to  take  the  following  precautions:  (1) 
Do  not  plant  cabbage  a  second  year  on  land  where  the 
disease  is  observed  without  several  years  intervening, 
during  which  no  nearly  allied  crop  has  been  grown  on  it. 
The  seed  bed  should  also  be  made  in  new  soil  each  year, 
as  the  plants  may  become  diseased  when  very  young. 
(2)  Do  not  use  manure  for  cabbage  crops  from  animals 
that  have  been  fed  uncooked  diseased  cabbage.  (3)  The 
disease  may  be  spread  by  insects  which  fly  from  one  plant 
to  another;  hence  these  insects  should  be  kept  in  check 
as  much  as  possible.  (4)  When  the  disease  appears  the 
field  should  be  gone  over  systematically  and  all  diseased 
leaves  removed  and  destroyed  as  soon  as  they  appear.  If 
the  disease  has  entered  the  stem  the  whole  plant  should 
be  destroyed.  This  destruction  should  consist  in  burning 
or  deep  burial.  (5)  Since  this  disease  may  be  continued 
on  wild  mustard,  pepper  cress,  shepherd's  purse,  and  other 


210 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


allied  plants,  these  plants  should  be  carefully  kept  out 
of  land  that  has  been  once  infested  if  it  is  intended  for 
cabbage. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS  (Brassica  oleracea) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  biennial.  This  is 
one  of  the  many  variations  which  the  cabbage  has  taken 
on  under  cultivation.  In  this  case  where  the  head  of  the 
cabbage  is  ordinarily  found  there  are  loose  green  leaves 
and  seldom  a  head.  The  stem  is  generally  two  feet  or 

more  high,  with  leaves,  and  at 
the  base  of  each  leaf  is  a  small 
cabbage  which  seldom  attains  a 
diameter  of  over  two  inches. 
These  little  cabbages  are  the 
parts  eaten ;  they  are  much  more 
delicate  than  the  common  cab- 
bage and  are  highly  esteemed 
by  many.  The  plant  requires 
the  same  treatment  as  cabbage, 
except  that  the  plants  can  be 
grown  nearer  together.  While 
easily  grown  it  is  doubtful  about 

its  becoming  a  popular  vegetable,  since  in  most  of  our 
markets  very  little  attention  is  paid  to  quality,  and  the 
common  cabbage  will  probably  continue  to  take  the  place 
of  this  vegetable  on  most  tables.  The  variety  most  es- 
teemed is  known  as  Dwarf  Brussels  sprouts. 

CAULIFLOWER  (Brassica  oleracea} 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  biennial.  Cauli- 
flower is  a  form  of  cabbage  in  which  the  inflorescence 
becomes  fleshy  and  distorted.  It  is,  however,  considered 
much  more  delicate  than  cabbage,  and  brings  a  higher 


CAULIFLOWER  211 

price.  It  is  grown  in  much  the  same  manner  as  cabbage; 
the  plants,  however,  are  not  as  hardy  in  resisting  cold 
weather  as  cabbage,  are  more  sensitive  to  adverse  con- 
ditions, and  should  have  more  manure  in  the  soil.  As 
soon  as  the  head  commences  to  form,  the  outside  leaves 
of  the  plant  should  be  drawn  together  over  the  head  so  as 


Fig.  83.     Snowball  cauliflower. 

to  keep  the  sunlight  away  from  it.  Treated  in  this  way 
the  heads  will  be  nearly  snow  white,  while  if  not  protected 
they  become  brown  in  color  and  are  not  as  salable.  The 
crop  ripens  somewhat  irregularly.  When  danger  of  hard 
frost  is  apparent  the  immature  heads  should  be  pulled 
with  roots  and  leaves  and  be  planted  out  in  a  cold 
cellar  or  cold  frame,  where  many  of  them  will  form  good, 
salable  heads. 

The  insect  enemies  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  cab- 
bage. 


212 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Varieties. — There  are 
many  varieties,  of  which, 
perhaps,  the  most  desir- 
able are  the  Snowball 
and  the  Early  Dwarf 
Erfurt. 

KALE,  OR  BORECOLE 

(Brassica  oleracea  var.) 

Description.  —  Native 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  An- 
nual or  biennial.  The 
iseed  is  like  that  of  the 
cabbage  or  kohl-rabi. 
lis  head  is  group- 
a  number  of  vegeta- 
bles closely  related  to 

cabbage  and  kohl-rabi,  and  are  used  for  greens.     None  of 

them  are  sufficiently  hardy  in  the  extreme  north  to  stand 

out  over  winter.  They 

are  here  cultivated  in 

the   same   manner    as 

turnips.     In     sections 

where  the  winters  are         __ :_ 

1 

<.*-» 


Fig.  84.     Cauliflower    plant    with   leaves 
tied  together  to  keep    the    sunlight  off   the 
head.     This  should  be  done   as  soon  as  the    .^j 
head  can  be  seen,  and   the  leaves  should  re-    ed 


mild,  some  of  them  are 
esteemed  for  planting 
in  autumn  for  early 
spring  use. 


£.- 


Fig.  85.     Dwarf  Purple  kale. 


KOHL-RABI  (Brassica  oleracea  var.) 

Description. — Kohl-rabi  has  been  derived  from  a 
plant  nearly  allied  to  the  cabbage,  and  its  seed  resembles 
cabbage  seed.  Its  pecularity  is  its  swollen  stem  just  above 


TURNIP 


213 


the  ground,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  and  grown 
in  the  same  general  way  as  a  turnip.  It  is  more  highly 
esteemed  than  turnips 
for  early  summer  use 
where  well  known. 
Like  turnips  it  should 
be  sown  where  it  is  to 
mature  and  be  used 
when  young  and  ten- 
der. It  may  be  stored 
in  winter  like  turnips. 
Varieties.  —  There 
are  small,  tender  va- 
rieties especially  de- 
signed for  table  use, 
and  others  that  grow 
to  large  size  and  are 
valuable  for  feeding 
to  stock.  Two  of  the  Fig-  86-  Kohl-rabi- 

best  for  table  use  are  the  White  Vienna  and  the  Purple 
Vienna. 

TURNIP  (Brassica  napus)  AND  RUTABAGA,  OR  SWEDISH  TUR- 
NIP (Brassica  campestris) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe  or  Asia.  Biennials. 
They  are  cultivated  for  their  swollen,  fleshy  roots.  The 
varieties  of  turnip  and  rutabaga  vary  much  in  form,  size, 
and  color  of  the  skin.  The  flesh  is  white  or  yellow,  and 
pungent  or  slightly  acid.  There  are  more  differences  in 
the  varieties  of  the  turnip  than  of  the  rutabaga.  The 
flower  stalks  are  produced  the  second  year  and  bear  a 
large  number  of  yellow  flowers.  The  seeds  are  smooth 


214  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

and  round  like  the  seed  of  the  cabbage  and  cauliflower 
and  are  in  similarly  shaped  pods. 

Turnip. — The  turnip  is  essentially  a  cold  weather  plant 
and  does  best  when  most  of  its  growth  is  made  during  the 
autumn.  It  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  spring,  but 
there  is  very  little  call  for  it  until  cool  weather. 

Culture. — The  turnip  needs  to  be  grown  very  rapidly 
to  have  the  best  quality.  The  best  soil  for  it  is  a  friable, 
rich,  sandy  loam,  free  from  fresh  manure.  Sod  land  that 


Fig.  87.     White  Strap  Leaf  turnip. 

has  been  recently  broken  up  is  excellent  for  turnips; 
but  on  old  land,  i.  e.,  that  which  has  been  cultivated  for 
several  years,  or  where  there  is  fresh  manure,  the  roots 
are  often  wormy.  When  grown  for  early  use  some  quick- 
maturing  kinds  should  be  planted  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  soil  can  be  worked,  in  rows  fifteen  inches  apart. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  rather  thickly  and  the  seedlings 
thinned  out  two  or  three  inches  apart  after  all  danger 
from  the  flea  beetle  has  passed.  (This  insect  is  the  same 
as  that  which  attacks  cabbage.) 


RUTABAGA 


215 


Turnips  grown  for  late  use  generally  come  in  as  a 
second  crop  after  grain,  strawberries,  early  potatoes,  cab- 
bage, or  other  crop  that  is  off  the  land  by  the  first  of  August, 
since  after  this  time  a  good  crop  of  many  varieties  of  late 
turnips  will  mature  before  winter,  though  some  of  the 
large  kinds  need  to  be  sown  earlier  in  the  season.  The 
seed  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast  just  before  a  shower, 
or  else  it  is  harrowed  in.  It  is  also  grown  in  rows  about 
two  feet  apart  and  cultivated  with  a  horse  cultivator,  or 
the  rows  may  be  put  nearer  together  and  a  hand  cultivator 
used. 

Varieties. — Some  of  the  best  varieties  of  turnips  are 
Early  Flat  and  Extra  Early  Milan,  for  early  use;  Red  Top 
Strap  Leaf  and  White  Egg  or  White  Globe,  for  autumn  use. 

Rutabagas,  also  called  Swedish  turnips,  are  grown  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  common  turnips,  but  require  about 
four  weeks  longer  to  attain 
edible  size,  and,  on  this  account, 
should  be  planted  by  the  mid- 
dle of  June  or  first  of  July. 
They  are  grown  in  rows  thirty 
inches  apart  and  cultivated 
with  a  horse  hoe.  Rutabagas 
are  sometimes  grown  in  beds 
and  then  transplanted,  but  this 
is  seldom,  if  ever,  done  with 
turnips. 

The  seeds  of  both  turnips 
and  rutabagas  are  so  smooth  and 
fine  that  they  are  generally  sown  too  thick.  Mixing 
the  seed  with  flour  is  a  good  way  to  prevent  its  running 
too  rapidly  through  the  seed  sower.  The  crop 
should  be  allowed  to  stay  in  the  ground  until  the 


Fig.  88.     Rutabaga. 


216  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

approach  of  severe  cold  weather.  They  will  stand  some 
little  freezing  without  injury,  but  will  not  live  in  the  soil 
over  winter.  They  should  be  stored  in  frost-proof  pits 
or  cellars.  In  dry  cellars  they  should  be  covered  with  a 
few  inches  of  sand  or  other  material  to  prevent  wilting. 
(See  directions  for  keeping  carrots.) 

Varieties. — Improved  Purple  Top  Swede  and  White 
Rock  are  both  excellent  varieties  of  rutabagas. 

HORSE-RADISH  (Nasturtium  armoradd) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  perennial.  Flow- 
ers white  and  small,  in  long  clusters;  seed  vessels  small, 
rounded  and  almost  always  barren.  Propagated  by  cuttings 
of  the  roots. 

Cultivation. — This  plant  thrives  in  deep,  moist  soil, 
but  will  grow  in  almost  any  situation,  and  is  very  hardy. 
It  is  customary  to  let  it  remain  in  some  neglected  corner, 
where  it  kills  out  everything  else;  and  though  treated  in 
this  way  it  yields  sufficient  roots  for  home  use,  the  roots 
are  so  crowded  that  they  are  scarcely  salable.  When  grown 
as  a  market  crop  it  is  planted  anew  each  year.  Straight 
pieces  of  roots  six  or  eight  inches  long,  called  "sets,"  are 
planted  early  in  the  spring  about  twelve  inches  apart  in 
rows  two  feet  apart.  The  roots  must  be  set  right  end 
uppermost  or  they  will  not  grow  smooth  and  straight. 
An  iron  bar  is  the  most  convenient  tool  for  planting  the 
sets.  The  tops  of  the  sets  should  be  about  two  inches 
below  the  surface. 

It  is  customary  to  grow  horse-radish  as  a  second  crop 
after  peas  or  cabbage,  by  setting  the  roots  between  the 
the  rows  of  the  first  crop  and  cultivating  the  soil  without 
regard  to  them  until  the  first  crop  is  harvested.  It  does 
not  seem  to  hurt  horse-radish  sets  much  if  they  are  cut 


WATER   C RE SiS  217 

off  a  few  times  in  cultivating  early  in  the  season.  When  the 
first  crop  is  gathered  the  land  is  thoroughly  cultivated, 
and  the  horse-radish  plants  given  good  care.  This  plant 
makes  its  greatest  growth  in  autumn  and  is  dug  on  the 
approach  of  winter  or  can  be  left  until  spring.  It  must 
never  be  left  two  years  on  the  same  land,  or  else  great 
labor  will  be  required  to  get  rid  of  it,  and  the  roots  will 
be  so  crooked  as  to  be  almost  unsalable. 

Horse-radish  is  used  almost  entirely  after  grinding  or 
grating  the  roots  and  mixing  with  vinegar.  It  will  keep 
for  any  length  of  time  when  thus  prepared  and  kept  in 
air-tight  packages.  It  is  also  ground  and  dried,  and  the 
young  leaves  are  sometimes  used  for  greens.  The 
demand  is  limited,  though  considerable  quantities  are 
sold  each  year.  Under  some  conditions  it  is  a  paying 
crop,  but  the  business  is  very  liable  to  be  overdone. 
There  are  no  varieties. 

WATER  CRESS  (Nasturtium  officinale) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  perennial.  This 
is  an  aquatic  plant,  with  long  stems  which  readily  take 
root  in  moist  soil  or  water.  It  is  esteemed  for  use  as  a 
salad  on  account  of  its  pleasant  pungent  flavor.  Leaves 
are  compound,  with  roundish  divisions;  flowers  small 
white,  in  terminal  spikes;  seeds,  usually  few,  very  fine,  in 
slightly  curved  pods. 

Culture. — It  can  only  be  cultivated  successfully  in 
moist  situations  and  generally  does  best  along  the  edges 
of  streams,  where  it  grows  partially  in  the  water.  It 
may,  however,  be  grown  successfully  in  any  moist  soil, 
even  in  a  greenhouse.  It  is  very  hardy,  but  for  best 
results  should  be  covered  with  water  during  winter. 
Most  of  the  supply  for  our  markets  comes  from  along 


218  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

the  courses  of  natural  streams.  In  Europe,  trenches 
from  16  to  20  feet  wide  for  growing  water  cress  are  often 
excavated,  into  which  running  water  may  be  turned  at 
pleasure.  In  the  bottom  of  these  trenches  the  roots  of 
the  cress  are  planted.  The  water  is  then  let  in,  and  the 
plants  are  not  interfered  with  until  they  have  grown  strong 
enough  to  yield  a  crop  of  leaves.  It  is  often  practicable 
to  make  narrow  beds  for  this  purpose  about  springs  or  slow 
running  streams. 

CRESS,  OR  PEPPER  GRASS  (Lepidium  sativum) 

Native  of  Persia.  An  annual.  An  early  vegetable  used  as 
a  salad  and  for  garnishing,  and  of  the  easiest  culture.  It 
should  be  sown  very  early  in  the  spring  in  the  hotbed  or 
outdoors  in  rows  one  foot  or  less  apart.  As  it  quickly 
runs  to  seed,  a  succession  of  sowings  should  be  made  every 
eight  or  ten  days.  It  is  in  demand  only  in  the  early  spring 
or  in  winter.  It  can  easily  be  grown  in  a  window  box  in  a 
dwelling  house.  Flowers  are  white  and  small ;  seeds  com- 
paratively large. 

RADISHES  (Raphanus  sativus} 

Description. — Probably  a  native  of  Asia.  Annual  or, 
in  the  case  of  the  winter  radish,  biennial.  The  flower 
stalks  are  branched,  about  three  feet  high,  and  have  white 
or  lilac-colored  flowers,  but  never  yellow.  The  seed  is 
roundish  or  oval,  but  somewhat  flattened,  and  much  larger 
than  cabbage  or  turnip  seed  and  much  more  variable  in 
size.  Some  recent  experiments  show  that  the  large  radish 
seeds  germinate  better  and  produce  marketable  roots 
sooner  and  more  uniform  in  shape  than  small  seed. 

Culture.— The  radish  is  a  vegetable  of  very  easy  cul- 
ture. The  roots  of  some  kinds  reach  edible  size  in  three 
weeks  when  grown  in  best  conditions,  and  are  a  favorite 


RADISH 


219 


vegetable  of  early  spring.  It  is  a  common  practice  to 
sow  the  seed  of  early  kinds  in  hotbeds  between  rows  of 
lettuce,  and  outdoors  between,  or  in,  the  rows  of  beets, 
carrots,  parsnips,  etc. 
They  wilt  grow  in  almost 
any  soil,  but  new  land 
is  best  for  them.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  as 
soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked  in  the  spring,  and 
if  sowings  are  made  once 
every  two  weeks  thereaf- 
ter a  succession  of  tender 
roots  may  be  had. 

Winter  radishes  are 
grown  and  stored  in  the 
same  manner  and  fully 
as  easily  as  turnips.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  June  or 
July  and  the  roots  gath- 
ered in  autumn  and 
stored  in  cellars  or  pitted 
outdoors.  They  keep  very  well.  Winter  radishes  closely 
resemble  the  early  kinds  in  quality,  but  are  firmer  in 
texture. 

Insect  Enemies. — The  cabbage  flea  beetle  affects  the 
young  radish  plants  in  the  late  spring  and  summer.  (See 
chapter  on  insects  for  remedies.)  The  roots  are  some- 
times infested  with  maggots,  but  these  are  seldom  trouble- 
some except  where  fresh  manure  is  used  or  in  land 
where  radishes  have  been  grown  for  several  years.  It  is 
best  not  to  manure  the  land  for  radishes  but  to  use  rich 
soil  that  has  been  put  in  good  order  by  some  previous  crop. 


Fig.  89.     White  Strasburg  radish. 


220 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Varieties. — There  are  many  kinds,  differing  from 
one  another  in  color,  form,  size,  time  of  maturity,  and 
taste.  They  are  generally  divided  into  early  or  forcing 
varieties,  summer  and  autumn  varieties,  and  winter  kinds. 
A  few  of  each  are  here  mentioned: — 

French  Breakfast. — One  of  the  best  very  early  radishes 
for  the  market,  but  small.  It  remains  in  good  condition 
for  only  a  short  time,  consequently  is  not  desirable  for 
the  home  garden. 

Early  White  Tip  Scarlet  Turnip  Shaped. — A  handsome 

round,  early,  popular 
radish,  maturing  very 
quickly. 

Early  Deep  Scarlet. 
— Very  early,  round  and 
of  deep  scarlet  color. 

Long  Scarlet  Short 
Top.  —  A  well  known 
desirable  early  kind  hav- 
ing long,  scarlet  roots. 

White  Strasburg.  — 
One  of  the  finest  half- 
long  kinds  for  summer 
use.  Grows  to  good  size;  white  and  tender. 

Rose. — The  most  popular  of  the  winter  sorts;  skin 
pink. 

Black  Spanish. — Skin  very  black;  flesh  white,  firm, 
tender,  but  very  pungent.  A  good  winter  sort. 

THE  CLOVER  FAMILY  (Order  Leguminosae) 

The  Clover  Family  is  made  up  of  trees,  shrubs,  and 
herbs  which  with  few  exceptions  have  a  butterfly-shaped 


Fig.  90.     French  Breakfast  radish. 


BEANS  221 

corolla,  ten  stamens,  nine  of  which  are  generally  grown 
together.  The  fruit  is  known  as  a  legume  and  is  a  pod 
that  opens  like  the  pea  or  bean  pods.  The  leaves  are 
alternate,  chiefly  compound,  and  have  stipules.  Besides 
the  beans  ana  peas,  whose  cultural  directions  are  here 
given,  the  following  are  members  of  this  family:  clovers, 
vetch,  alfalfa,  and  lupine,  among  farm  crops,  and  the 
common  locust,  Kentucky  coffee  tree,  honey  locust,  and 
yellowwood,  among  trees. 

BEANS  (Phaseolus) 

Description. — An  annual.  The  common  beans  in  this 
country  are  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of  South  America. 
They  are  sometimes  referred  to  as  kidney  or  French 
beans  (P.  vulgaris).  Besides  these,  the  Lima  beans  (P. 
lunatus)  are  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent.  The  common 
broad  bean  of  Europe  is  an  entirely  different  vegetable 
from  the  kinds  generally  grown  here  and  is  not  sufficiently 
prolific  in  the  North  to  make  it  worthy  of  cultivation. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  beans,  and  the  varieties  of 
each  species  readily  cross  together,  the  flowers  being 
especially  adapted  to  crossing.  They  vary  from  one 
another  in  many  particulars;  some  are  low,  bushy,  and 
erect,  while  others  are  twining  and  have  stems  that  grow 
ten  or  more  feet  in  a  season. 

There  are  many  gradations  between  these  extremes, 
as  well  as  in  size,  color,  and  shape  of  seed  and  plant.  The 
twining-stem  kinds  always  twine  from  right  to  left  around 
any  support  they  can  lay  hold  of.  Horticulturally,  beans 
are  divided  into  the  bush  and  the  pole  varieties.  Under 
the  first  class  are  included  all  the  field  varieties  that  are 
grown  to  be  used  as  shelled  beans  and  some  snap  and 
string  beans.  They  have  stout,  erect  or  slightly  running 


222  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

stems.  Under  pole  beans  are  classed  all  the  kinds  that 
have  twining  stems  and  which  are  benefited  by  having 
support  of  some  kind.  There  are,  however,  dwarf  bunch 
beans  having  the  same  general  features  as  the  pole  kinds 
except  the  tall  stem. 

While  this  division  is  by  no  means  distinct,  yet  the 
methods  of  cultivation  adapted  to  each  growth  are  different. 
All  beans  are  quite  tender  and  should  not  be  planted 

until  the  soil  is  warm 
and  all  danger  of  frost  is 
over.  They  are  sown 
for  early  use  about  the 
time  for  general  corn 
planting.  For  the  main 
crop  they  should  be 
planted  about  the  first 
of  June. 

Bush  Beans. — These 
are  very  easily  grown 
and  are  adapted  to  a 
great  variety  of  pur- 
poses. For  a  field  crop 

Fig.  91.     Bush  bean.  .  111 

on  a  large  scale,  the  seed 

is  generally  sown  with  a  horse  drill  or  with  a  hand  gar- 
den drill  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  It  is  sometimes  best 
to  mark  out  the  land  first  and  then  follow  with  the 
drill  in  the  marks.  Seed  should  be  sown  two  or  three 
inches  deep.  On  a  smaller  scale,  the  land  may  be  fur- 
rowed out  with  a  one-horse  plow  or  with  a  wheel  hoe 
and  the  seed  sowed  by  hand.  After  culture  consists  in 
keeping  the  land  well  cultivated  with  a  horse  hoe  and 
free  from  weeds.  Varieties  of  dwarf  beans  for  use  in  a 
green  state,  such  as  string  or  snap  beans,  may  be  sown  at 


BEANS  223 

any  time  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  first  of  August 
and  with  good  prospects  of  a  good  crop  of  green  pods 
even  at  the  latter  date.  Some  kinds  have  edible  pods 
in  less  than  six  weeks  after  the  seed  is  sown. 

Harvesting  Beans. — For  use  in  a  green  state,  the  pods 
of  some  kinds  of  beans  are  picked  as  soon  as  large  enough 
to  use  and  when  they  are  tender  and  fresh ;  in  other  cases 
the  beans  are  used  when  still  fresh,  but  not  until  they  are 
large  enough  to  shell  from  the  pods.  Field  beans  are 
harvested  by  being  pulled  by  hand  or  gathered  with  a  bean 
gatherer  when  they  are  ripe,  laid  in  rows  until  dry  enough 
for  threshing,  then  threshed  at  once  or  stored  for  threshing 
later  on.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  storing  the  pods 
to  prevent  molding  of  the  beans,  and  in  threshing  not  to 
break  the  beans.  In  a  small  way  beans  may  be  threshed 
out  by  hand,  but  on  a  large  scale  any  common  threshing 
machine  may  be  used,  providing  suitable  changes  are 
made  in  it  so  it  will  not  break  the  beans. 

Varieties  of  Bush  Beans. — There  are  many  varieties  of 
bush  beans  having  desirable  qualities,  but  only  a  few  of 
the  most  valuable  are  mentioned  here: — 

Field  Beans. — White  Marrow,  Burlingame  Medium, 
Navy,  and  Snowflake. 

Waxen  Podded  Beans. — Dwarf  Golden  Wax  and  Dwarf 
Black  Wax. 

Shell  and  String  Beans. — Yellow  Six  Weeks,  Early 
Mohawk,  Cranberry,  and  Dwarf  Horticultural. 

Japanese,  Soy,  or  Soja  Beans. — These  are  easily  grown, 
but  on  account  of  their  inferior  quality  are  not  much  used 
here. 

Dwarf  Lima  beans  are  highly  esteemed  by  those  who 
know  them,  and  although  smaller  in  size  than  the  pole 
Limas  are  supplanting  them  in  some  sections  and  are 


224 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Fig.  92.     Dwarf  Lima  beans. 


coming  into  quite  general  use,  on  account  of  their  being 
more  certain  to  mature  well  and  requiring  less  labor  in 
cultivation.  They  require  the  same  methods  of  culti- 
vation as  other  dwarf  beans 
but  should  not  be  planted  until 
the  land  is  thoroughly  warmed. 
The  best  varieties  are  known 
as  Henderson's  Dwarf,  Burpee's 
Dwarf,  Jackson  Wonder  (black 
spotted),  and  Kumerle  Dwarf 
Lima.  The  common  dwarf  shell 
beans  are  early,  productive,  and 
good,  but  not  as  rich  in  quality 
as  the  varieties  named. 

Pole  Beans.  —  The  twining 
varieties  of  beans  are  little 
grown  in  this  section,  as  the 
improved  dwarf  kinds  take  their  place  to  a  great  extent. 
Tall  Lima  beans,  however,  are  highly  esteemed  by  many, 
and  the  dwarf  varieties  of  this  class  are  not  as  desirable 
as  the  pole  kinds.  There  is  also  a  demand  for  such  shell 
beans  as  the  pole  Horticultural,  Cranberry,  and  Case- 
knife  varieties.  Pole  beans  require  stronger  land  than  do 
the  dwarf  kinds. 

The  ordinary  way  of  growing  pole  beans  is  to  set  poles 
six  feet  long  in  hills  four  feet  apart  each  way.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  put  a  shovelful  of  good  composted  or  rotted 
manure  in  each  hill  if  the  land  is  poor.  Seed  should  not 
be  planted  till  the  ground  is  quite  warm;  the  pole  varieties 
are  more  particular  in  this  respect  than  the  dwarf  kinds. 
About  six  seeds  should  be  planted  two  or  three  inches 
deep  around  each  pole.  In  the  case  of  Lima  beans  the 
general  belief  is  that  the  beans  should  be  planted  edge- 


BEANS  225 

ways  with  the  eye  downwards,  but  good  results  are  often 
obtained  by  sowing  the  seeds  without  regard  to  this  matter. 
This  latter  method  is  customary  in  sowing  the  dwarf 
Lima,  and  some  who  sow  the  large  Lima  beans  in  furrows 
and  train  them  to  trellises  pay  no  regard  to  the  position 
of  the  seed  in  the  soil,  but  sow  an  abundance  of  seed  so  as 
to  be  sure  of  a  good  stand. 

Lima  beans  are  generally  shelled  by  hand  when  fresh 
but  full  grown,  and  are  sold  by  the  quart.  In  warm  cli- 
mates they  are  sold  in  large  quantities  after  being  dried. 
The  Cranberry  and  Horticultural  kinds  are  generally 
sold  in  the  pod.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings  commence  to 
"run"  it  is  customary  to  assist  them  in  getting  started, 
and  some  seasons  it  is  necessary  to  tie  the  Lima  beans  to 
the  poles  until  they  are  well  started.  Lima  beans  require 
as  extra  warm  location  and  soil. 

Beans  may  be  transplanted  if  removed  with  much 
care  when  the  soil  is  moist.  Some  very  successful  gardeners 
find  that  it  pays  them  to  start  their  pole  Lima  beans  on 
pieces  of  sod  or  in  pots  or  boxes  in  hotbeds,  and  in  this 
way  they  advance  the  period  of  ripening  two  weeks  or 
more.  This  a  very  desirable  practice  with  pole  Lima  beans 
in  the  North  since  the  short  season  often  fails  to  mature 
much  of  the  crop  when  the  seed  is  planted  in  the  open 
ground.  The  varieties  of  pole  Lima  beans  best  adapted 
to  the  Minnesota  section  are  probably  the  Large  Lima 
and  Dreer's  Lima;  both  of  these  are  of  fine  quality  and  are 
productive.  The  small  Lima  or  Sieva  bean  is  earlier  than 
those  mentioned,  but  of  inferior  quality. 

Preserving  Beans  in  Salt. — String  beans  are  easily 
preserved  in  salt  for  winter  use,  using  about  seven  pounds 
to  the  bushel  of  pods.  In  doing  this  the  fresh,  tender  pods 
are  put  at  once  into  the  brine  as  they  come  from  the  field. 


226 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


When  wanted  for  use,  they  should 
be  freshened  out  and  cooked  in  the 
ordinary  way.  They  are  very  good, 
and  are  nearly  as  desirable  as  the  best 
canned  beans. 

Diseases  and  Insects. — Beans  are 
quite  free  from  the  attacks  of  any 
injurious  insects  or  diseases.  An- 
thracnose  of  the  bean  (Gloeosporium 
lindemuihianum}  shows  itself  by 
black  spots  on  the  stems  or  pods 
or  both.  It  is  sometimes  very  inju- 
rious in  moist  weather,  but  only  in 
the  occasional  years  have  we  any- 
thing to  fear  from  it.  It  is  not  gen- 
erally considered  profitable  to  use 
Fig.  93.  Anthracnose  of  any  of  the  fungicides  such  as  Bor- 
deaux mixture,which  would  readily 

prevent  it.  Beans  grown  in  locations  where  there  is  a 
good  circulation  of  air  are  less  liable  to  injury  than  those 
not  so  situated. 

PEAS  (Pisum  sativum) 

Description. — The  pea  is  an  annual  plant  of  uncertain 
origin,  but  probably  a  native  of  central  Europe.  The 
flowers  are  either  white  or  violet  colored,  but  the  most 
desirable  garden  kinds,  almost  without  exception,  bear 
white  flowers. 

Varieties  of  peas  are  divided  into  three  classes,  those 
having  wrinkled  seed,  those  having  round,  small  seed, 
and  those  having  edible  pods.  Wrinkled-seed  varieties 
do  not  germinate  as  well  as  the  smooth-skinned  or  round 
sorts,  nor  do  their  germinating  powers  last  as  long,  nor 


PEA  8 


227 


are  they  as  hardy  in  resisting  the  adverse  conditions  of 
early  spring.  On  account  of  the  latter  reason,  gardeners 
plant  the  round  seed  first  in  the  spring,  and  do  not  plant 
the  wrinkled  kinds  until  the  soil  is  in  the  best  condition 
and  somewhat  warm.  The  wrinkled  kinds  are  better  in 
quality  than  the  round  and  smooth  varieties.  Peas  hav- 
ing edible  pods  are  not  popular  in  this  country,  probably 
because  of  the  ease  with  which  string  beans  are  grown. 

Culture. — Peas  may  be  grown 
successfully  in  almost  any  good 
soil ;  they  even  do  well  on  rather 
poor  soil.  The  kinds  having 
smooth  seeds  should  be  plant- 
ed as  soon  as  the  ground  can 
be  worked  in  the  spring — even 
a  hard  freeze  does  not  hurt  the 
plants  as  they  are  coming  out 
of  the  ground,  and  they  will 
stand  considerable  frost  when 
well  up.'  The  distances  between 
the  rows  and  the  seeds  in  the 
row  depend  somewhat  on  the 
kinds  grown.  Some  kinds  branch 
out  far  more  than  others,  and, 
consequently  need  more  room 
in  the  row.  They  also  vary 
in  length  of  stem  from  a  few 
inches  to  six  or  seven  feet.  The  tall  kinds  require  the 
rows  to  be  five  or  six  feet  apart,  while  dwarf  varieties  are 
generally  planted  in  rows  thirty  inches  to  three  feet  apart. 
The  growing  of  tall  kinds  is  confined  mostly  to  private 
gardens,  where  it  is  customary  to  use  brush  or  other  ma- 
terial in  the  rows  for  support.  Formerly  among  tall 


Fig.  94.     Nott's  Excelsior  pea. 


228  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

varieties  were  those  far  excelling  in  quality  anything 
found  among  those  of  a  dwarf  habit,  but  recent  intro- 
ductions of  the  latter  kinds  have  shown  a  great  improve- 
ment in  quality,  until  now  the  dwarf  sorts  are  generally 
grown,  even  by  the  most  fastidious. 

In  common  practice  the  seed  is  sown  about  four  inches 
deep,  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  putting  about  ten  seeds 
to  each  foot  of  row.  It  is  best  to  sow  plenty  of  seed  in 
order  to  secure  a  good  stand.  The  land  should  be  well 
cultivated  between  the  rows.  Unleached  wood  ashes 
or  some  other  fertilizer  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  is  most  beneficial  for  this  crop.  As  it  belongs  to  the 
leguminous  section  of  plants,  it  is  a  nitrogen-gatherer  and, 
consequently,  does  not  need  much  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 
Early  peas  as  generally  grown  are  out  of  the  way  in  time 
to  allow  the  land  to  be  used  for  late  cabbage  or  string  beans. 

When  it  is  desired  to  extend  the  season  of  table  peas, 
successive  sowings  should  be  made  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks,  up  to  the  tenth  of  June.  During  the  summer  the 
vines  are  too  liable  to  mildew  to  make  late  spring  planting 
successful.  The  pea  is  distinctively  a  cool  weather  plant, 
and  on  this  account  it  will  often  do  well  when  sown  in  the 
latter  part  of  summer  for  use  in  autumn. 

The  canning  of  peas  is  an  important  industry  in  some 
sections  and  could  be  more  readily  introduced  into  other 
sections  to  advantage.  In  sowing  peas  for  canneries  it 
is  the  practice  in  some  sections  to  sow  them  with  a  common 
grain  drill  and  to  harvest  with  machinery.  The  Alaska  is  the 
variety  very  largely  grown  for  canning.  Its  pods  mature 
almost  at  one  time,  which  is  a  desirable  character.  They 
are  shelled  by  machinery  and  are  graded  into  various 
sizes  by  passing  over  sieves.  Gross  returns  for  peas  vary 
with  the  market  and  the  variety  from  $25  to  $100  per  acre. 


PEAS  229 

Varieties. — Of  the  many  varieties  only  a  few  of  the  best 
are  mentioned  here.  For  very  early  use,  almost  every 
seedman  has  a  strain  of  smooth,  round  peas  which  he 
sends  out  under  his  own  peculiar  name.  The  early  sorts 
are  generally  derived  from  the  old  Daniel  O'Rourke,  and 
among  them  are  varieties  known  as  the  First  and  Best, 
Earliest  of  All,  Alaska,  and  Improved  Extra  Early.  As  a 
rule  these  should  be  used  for  first  planting  only,  to  be 
followed  by  plantings  of  the  wrinkled  sorts. 

American  Wonder  is  a  very  dwarf  early  pea  of  unsur- 
passed quality  and  very  hardy  for  a  wrinkled  sort.  A 
rich  soil  and  extra  cultivation  are  required  to  get  the  best 
results  from  it.  If  only  one  variety  is  to  be  grown,  this 
is  perhaps  the  best  to  plant. 

Gradus. — An  early,  large-podded,  wrinkled  pea  of 
excellent  quality  and  a  good  yielder.  The  vines  grow 
about  three  feet  high. 

Stratagem. — Very  productive  and  justly  very  popular, 
having  remarkably  large  pods  filled  with  rich,  sweet  peas. 
It  does  better  on  light  than  on  heavy  soils. 

Marrowfat. — Among  the  most  popular  of  the  old 
varieties. 

Champion  of  England. — A  tall-growing,  popular  sort, 
of  best  quality,  that  does  best  when  supported  by  brush 
or  wire  netting.  Late. 

Telephone.  —  Of  excellent  quality,  pods  and  seeds 
large.  One  of  the  most  productive,  and  consequently 
very  popular.  Late. 

Thomas  Laxton. — Ripens  a  few  days  later  than  Gradus, 
has  large  pods,  and  peas  of  good  quality. 

Nott's  Excelsior. — An  early  dwarf  variety  growing 
about  fourteen  inches  high.  It  is  an  improvement  over 


230  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

the  American  Gradus  in  that  it  has  larger  pods  and  is 
more  prolific. 

THE  MALLOW  FAMILY  (Order  Malvaceae) 

The  Mallow  Family  is  composed  of  plants  having 
flowers  with  numerous  stamens  which  have  their  fila- 
ments grown  together  and  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
petals.  The  petals  are  twisted  together  in  the  bud.  Seeds 
are  kidney-shaped.  Herbs  or  shrubs  mucilaginous  with 
very  tough,  fibrous  bark;  none  of  them  are  poisonous. 
Okra  is  the  only  plant  of  this  family  that  is  frequently 
grown  in  gardens,  but  the  common  cotton  plant  also 
belongs  here,  as  well  as  the  Abutilon  mallow,  Hibiscus, 
Althaea,  and  hollyhock  of  our  gardens. 

OKRA  (Hibiscus  esculentus) 

Description. — Native  of  South  America.  An  annual. 
The  seed  is  round  and  of  medium 
size.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  green 
seed-pods,  which  are  highly  es- 
teemed for  soup.  It  is  little  grown 
except  in  the  South.  It  is  of  the 
easiest  culture.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  about  two  inches  apart  in 
rows  two  feet  apart  and  in  rich, 
warm  soil,  at  about  the  time  for 
planting  beans.  The  pods  are  pro- 
duced abundantly  but  are  per- 
haps not  as  tender  when  grown  in 

Fig.  93.    Dwarf  okra.  .  ,  , 

our  dry  atmosphere  as  they  are  in 

the  South.     The  flowers  are  large,  yellow,  and  very  pretty. 
The  varieties  known  as  Dwarf  Green  and  Long  Green 
are  best  for  northern  climates. 


PARSNIP 


231 


THE  PARSNIP  FAMILY  (Order  Umbelliferae) 

The  Parsnip  Family  is  made  up  of  herbaceous  plants 
some  of  which  are  aromatic  and  others  are  acid-narcotic 
poisons.  The  flowers  are  small  and  generally  arranged 
in  compound  umbels;  no  calyx,  but  instead  often  have 
five  minute  teeth;  five  petals,  five  stamens,  and  two  pistils. 
The  dry  fruit  usually  splits  into  two  parts,  and  the  seed 
of  most  species  has  oil  tubes. 
The  leaves  are  alternate  and 
more  commonly  compound 
or  decompound.  Besides 
the  parsnip,  parsley,  carrot, 
and  celery,  whose  cultural 
directions  are  here  given, 
the  family  includes  dill, 
anise,  caraway,  coriander, 
and  fennel,  which  are  de- 
scribed under  the  head  of 
garden  herbs. 

PARSNIPS  (Pastinaca  saliva) 

Description. — Native  of 
Europe.  A  biennial.  Cul- 
tivated for  its  long,  tender 
root.  Seeds  are  light  brown 
in  color,  flat,  and  marked 
with  five  raised  lines  or 
ridges.  The  seed  stalks  are  three  to  five  feet  high  and 
have  large  umbels  of  greenish  flowers. 

Culture. — The  parsnip  is  grown  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  carrot,  but  is  rather  more  particular  about  the  soil  on 
which  it  grows.  Then,  too,  in  manuring  the  land  for  this 


Fig.  96.     Parsnip  plant  in  flower. 


232 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


crop,  it  is  important  to  use  only  manure  which  is  well 
rotted,  as  the  application  of  fresh  manure  seems  to  encour- 
age the  formation  of  side  roots.  Also  on  hard  land,  there 
is  often  a  tendency  for  the  roots  to  form  side  roots,  and, 
as  what  is  desired  is  a  rather  thick  tap  root,  side  roots  are  to 
be  avoided.  It  is  important  to  sow  the  seed  early  and 
quite  thick,  thinning  out  later  in  order  to  be  sure  of  having 
a  good  stand  of  plants.  The  seed  germinates  rather 
slowly,  and  it  is  often  an  advantage  to  sow  a  few  radish 
seed  with  the  parsnips.  This  is  a  good 
plan  on  land  that  bakes  easily. 

Parsnips  are  a  very  hardy  crop,  and 
may  be  left  in  the  ground  until  late 
autumn  or  even  over  winter.  In  fact, 
many  believe  that  freezing  parsnips  in  the 
ground  improves  their  quality.  They 
may  be  safely  pitted  outdoors  by  putting 
them  in  heaps,  covering  with  a  few 
inches  of  hay  or  straw  and  then  a  foot 
of  earth.  Treated  in  this  way,  they  can 
be  taken  out  at  any  time  during  the 
winter  or  early  spring.  It  is  not  advis- 
able to  leave  the  crop  in  the  ground 
over  winter,  since  it  cannot  then  be  dug 
until  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  in 
the  spring,  by  which  time  the  demand  for 
parsnips  will  have  considerably  lessened. 
If  kept  in  an  ordinary  cellar,  they  should  be  covered 
with  earth  or  sand  to  prevent  wilting. 

In  marketing  the  parsnip,  it  is  often  customary,  after 
trimming  off  all  side  shoots,  to  sell  them  by  the  basket 
without  washing.  A  far  better  and  more  equitable  plan 
is  to  sell  them  by  weight.  In  some  of  the  best  markets, 


Fig.  97.      Hollow 
Crown  parsnip. 


PARSLEY  233 

the  roots,  after  being  carefully  washed  and  trimmed,  are 
packed  evenly  in  boxes,  sixteen  inches  square  and  eight 
inches  deep,  which  holds  just  a  bushel.  Packed  in  this 
way,  they  present  a  very  neat  appearance. 

Varieties. — The  Hollow  Crown,  or  Student  parsnip,  is 
the  best  kind  to  grow  for  table  use. 

Turnip  Rooted  parsnip,  which  is  short  and  round,  is 
used  to  some  extent.  It  is  a  good  form  on  light  soils, 
but  for  rich  land  the  Hollow  Crown  is  to  be  preferred. 

PARSLEY  (Carum  petroselinum) 

Description. — Native  of  Sardinia.  A  biennial.  The 
leaves  of  some  varieties  of  this  plant  are  used  in  a  fresh 
state  for  garnishing  and  seasoning,  and  in  the  case  of  a  few 


Fig.  98.     Fine  curled  parsley. 

kinds  the  fleshy  roots  are  used.  In  habit  of  growth  parsley 
resembles  the  parsnip,  to  which  it  is  closely  related.  The 
leaves,  however,  are  variously  cut  and  divided.  A  few 
varieties  are  grown  for  their  fleshy  roots. 

Culture. — Parsley  is  grown  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  the  parsnip,  and,  like  it,  its  seed  germinates  rather 
slowly.  The  seed  is  often  sown  for  winter  and  early  spring 
use  in  greenhouses  and  hotbeds.  The  leaves  may  be  used 
as  soon  as  large  enough.  The  roots  may  be  taken  up  in 


234 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


autumn  and  grown  in  a  greenhouse  or  in  a  box  in  a  sunny 
window  for  a  winter  supply.  The  demand  is  quite  limited. 
It  is  sold  in  small  bunches  and  may  be  found  in  the  larger 
markets  at  any  season  of  the  year.  It  seldom  comes 
through  our  winters  safely  when  left  exposed  outdoors, 
but  sometimes  does  so  when  well  protected. 

The  varieties  commonly  grown  are  the  Double  Curled 
and  Fine  Leaved,  either  of  which  makes  a  border  that  is 
pretty  enough  for  a  flower  garden,  and  it  is  often  used  as 
an  edging  for  small  kitchen  gardens. 

CARROTS  (Daucus  carota) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  biennial.  In  the 
wild  state  this  root  is  valueless,  being  slender  and  woody, 

and  the  plant  is  a  bad 
weed.  Under  cultivation 
it  exhibits  the  widest  dif- 
ference in  shape,  size,  and 
color.  Some  kinds  have 
roots  that  are  broader 
than  long  and  extend 
not  over  two  or  three 
inches  in  the  ground, 
while  others  attain  a 
length  of  two  feet,  and 
still  others  may  be  found 
having  the  various  in- 
termediate forms  between 
these  extremes.  There  are 
also  varieties  having  red, 

white,  or  yellow  flesh.  The  leaves  are  very  much  divided 
and  deeply  cut.  The  flowers  are  white  and  crowded  to- 
gether in  compound  umbels  on  stalks  two  to  five  feet  high. 


Fig.  99.     Carrot  plant  in  flower. 


CARROT  235 

The  roots  of  the  cultivated  kind  will  stand  considerable 
frost,  but  not  severe  freezing.  Two  seeds  are  produced  by 
each  flower;  they  are  flat  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the 
other,  and  are  partly  covered  by  minute  bristles.  The 
bristles  are  generally  removed  before  the  seed  is  sold. 
Carrots  are  used  to  some  extent  as  a  table  vegetable,  but 
they  are  especially  valuable  as  a  food  for  horses  and  other 
stock. 

Cultivation. — The  carrot  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  It 
requires  a  fine,  mellow,  rich,  upland  soil.  On  moist  land 
the  roots  are  apt  to  branch  and  are  very  liable  to  disease. 
The  seedlings  are  quite  delicate  when  they  first  come  up 
and  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  have  the  land 
clean,  so  that  the  small  seedlings  will  not  be  overrun  with 
weeds;  the  surface  soil  should  be  kept  loose  and  mellow 
throughout  the  season. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  a  few  radish  seeds  with  the 
carrot  seed  so  that  cultivation  may  be  commenced  early, 
as  the  latter  start  slowly. 

If  the  seed  of  the  small  kinds  are  sown  very  early  in 
spring  they  will  produce  roots  big  enough  for  table  use 
by  early  summer;  but  for  the  main  crop  the  seed  should  be 
sown  about  the  middle  of  May  in  rows  fourteen  inches 
apart.  A  fair  crop  may  be  expected  even  if  the  seed  is 
not  sown  until  the  middle  of  June,  although  the  dry  weather 
which  generally  prevails  at  that  time  of  the  year  is  liable 
to  prevent  or  retard  the  germination  of  the  seed  or  to 
burn  up  the  seedlings  just  as  they  are  pushing  out  of  the 
ground. 

The  crop  is  sometimes  sown  in  rows  two  feet  apart 
and  cultivated  with  a  horse  implement.  If  the  seed  is 
good,  two  pounds  per  acre,  or  about  fourteen  seeds  to  the 
foot  of  row,  is  plenty  to  sow.  Very  thick  seeding  is  not 


236  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

desirable,  as  the  cost  of  thinning  in  such  a  case  is  con- 
siderable. It  is  best  for  the  experienced  grower  to  have 
all  the  conditions  just  right  and  then  sow  the  seed  so  that 
little,  if  any,  thinning  will  be  necessary.  However,  the 
beginner  will  very  likely  find  it  safest  to  sow  a  large  amount 
of  seed,  perhaps  three  pounds  per  acre,  and  thin  out  so 
that  the  plants  will  stand  three  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
The  richer  the  soil  the  more  room  the  roots  require  in  the 
row;  if  small  roots  are  wanted  they  may  be  left  an  inch 
apart  in  the  row. 

The  carrot  requires  lots  of  potash  for  its  best  develop- 
ment. Vorhees  says  that  a  yield  of  fifteen  tons  per  acre 
will  remove  153  pounds  of  potash,  48  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
and  27  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  Never  apply  fresh 
manure  to  the  land  for  carrots  as  this  will  cause  a  large 
number  of  small  roots  to  form  instead  of  one  large  root  as 
desired. 

Gathering. — One  of  the  greatest  outlays  in  raising 
carrots  is  in  gathering  and  topping  the  crop.  The  topping 
may  be  done  by  hand,  after  being  plowed  out;  but  hand 
labor  is  very  costly.  Some  growers  go  over  the  rows 
and  cut  the  tops  off  with  a  sharp  hand  hoe.  If  the  tops 
of  the  roots  are  cut  off  a  little  no  harm  is  done,  as  it  does 
not  increase  the  liability  to  rot,  as  in  the  case  with  beets. 
The  roots  are,  perhaps  most  easily  dug  by  plowing  close 
to  each  row  and  then  pulling  them  out  by  hand.  For 
this  purpose  a  subsoil  plow  is  best,  but  any  good  plow 
will  answer  the  purpose  fairly  well.  If  a  short-rooted 
variety  is  grown,  and  the  land  is  mellow,  the  plow  may  often 
be  run  so  as  to  turn  the  roots  out  on  top  of  the  furrow  slice. 

Storing. — Carrots  are  easily  kept  over  winter  in  cellars, 
providing  they  are  in  a  temperature  near  the  freezing 
point  and  are  not  too  ripe  when  dug.  If  the  seed  has  been 


CARROT 


237 


planted  too  early,  the  roots  will  ripen  up  early  in  the  fall 
and  will  cease  to  grow,  and  many  of  the  leaves  will  turn 
yellow.  Such  roots  do  not  keep  well,  but  are  likely  to 
sprout  badly  long  before  spring,  even  if  kept  cold.  To 
have  the  roots  keep  best  they  should  be  growing  rapidly 


Fig.  100.     Harvesting  long  carrots  and  parsnips  by  plowing  the  earth  away 
on  one  side  and  then  pulling  the  roots  by  hand. 

when  dug.  In  dry  cellars,  it  may  be  necessary  to  cover 
with  loam  or  sand  to  prevent  those  on  top  of  the  bin  or 
pile  from  wilting.  If  they  are  to  be  fed  early  in  the  winter, 
they  may  perhaps  be  piled  in  the  barn  and  covered  with 
chaff  and  straw  sufficient  to  keep  out  the  frost  until  used. 

Carrot  seed  is  raised  by  planting  out  the  roots  in  the 
spring,  about  two  feet  apart,  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  The 
seed  heads  ripen  irregularly  and  are  gathered  as  they 
ripen  and  threshed  when  dry.  The  seed  is  generally 
rubbed  against  a  sieve  having  a  fine  mesh  to  take  the  bristles 
off,  otherwise  it  would  be  a  difficult  matter  to  sow  it  in 


238 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


a  machine.  Most  of  our  seed  comes  from  France,  England, 
and  Germany. 

The  forcing  of  carrots  is  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent, 
for  which  purpose  they  may  be  sown  between  rows  of 
radishes  in  the  hotbed  or  greenhouse. 

Varieties. — For  very  early  table  use  the  Short  Scarlet  is 
best.  For  general  use  in  summer  and  for  winter  use, 
perhaps  there  are  no  better  varieties  than  the  Danvers 


Fig.  101.     Varieties   of  carrots;    /,    Improved    Danvers    Half   Long;   2. 
Chantenay;  3,    Nantes;    4,    Oxheart.  — (Courtesy  Northrup,  King  6°  Co.) 

and  the  Chantenay.  The  Guerande  Half  Long,  or  Oxheart, 
is  a  variety  that  is  very  thick  and  short  and  yields  nearly 
as  much  as  the  Danvers.  It  matures  early  and  has  the 
further  advantage  of  being  easily  pulled  by  hand  without 
any  digging.  The  White  Belgian  is  a  large  cropper,  but 
is  only  of  value  as  food  for  stock.  Thirty  tons  of  carrots 
are  sometimes  raised  on  one  acre,  but  in  ordinary  practice 
seldom  more  than  half  that  amount  is  raised. 


CELERY  239 

CELERY  (Apium  graveolens) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  biennial.  The 
plants  are  grown  for  the  fleshy  leaf  stalks,  which  are  very 
tender  when  blanched ;  one  form  is  also  grown  for  the  large, 
fleshy  roots.  The  whole  plant  has  a  pleasant  aromatic 
flavor.  The  seed  stalks  are  branching  and  grow  from 
two  to  three  feet  high,  and  have  very  small  yellowish  or 
greenish  flowers  in  compound  umbels.  The  seed  is  small, 
triangular,  and  five-ribbed,  and  has  the  characteristic 
aromatic  flavor  of  the  plant. 

Celery  is  a  crop  that  is  very  liable  to  suffer  from  the 
want  of  rich,  nitrogenous  manures  and  from  a  superabun- 
dance or  a  lack  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  On  this  account 
it  should  be  grown  on  retentive  yet  well-drained,  rich 
land.  Well-drained  bog  land  with  the  water  about  eight- 
een inches  from  the  surface  is  often  excellent  for  this 
purpose.  Barnyard  manure  is  the  best  fertilizer  to  apply. 
It  may  be  applied  up  to  fifty  or  sixty  tons  per  acre,  but 
ordinarily  about  ten  tons  are  used.  If  commercial  fertili- 
zers are  to  be  used,  they  should  contain  a  large  percentage 
of  nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  soda  at  the  rate  of  150  to  200 
pounds  per  acre  is  sometimes  applied. 

Early  Celery. — The  seed  for  early  celery  is  generally 
sown  the  latter  part  of  February  or  early  March  in  boxes 
in  a  greenhouse.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  of  sufficient 
size  to  handle  well,  they  are  pricked  out  into  other  boxes 
or  into  hotbeds,  where  they  remain  until  large  enough 
for  planting  out,  which  is  sometime  in  May.  The  tops  of 
the  plants  should  be  sheared  off  once  before  they  are  pricked 
out  and  again  before  they  are  planted  to  the  open  ground, 
as  this  makes  them  stocky  and  helps  them  to  recover  from 
transplanting.  If  the  leaves  are  all  left  on  the  plants  when 


240 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


they  are  set  out,  they  generally  dry  up  and  in  so  doing  take 
away  much  moisture  from  the  roots.  The  plants  should  be 
hardened  off  before  being  set  out.  Early  celery  should 


Fig.  102.  Celery  plants.  Those  on  the  left  have  been  transplant- 
ed, and  show,  in  consequence,  an  improved  root  system  for  planting  out. 
Those  on  the  right  were  grown  only  in  the  seed  bed,  without  trans- 
planting, and  have  not  as  good  roots  for  planting  out.  The  plants  with 
tops  trimmed  are  ready  for  planting  out. 

be  blanched  by  being  covered  with  boards  or  with  boards 
and  straw,  since  the  ordinary  way  of  blanching  it  by  bank- 
ing with  earth  is  liable  to  bring  on  disease  in  warm  weather. 
Late  Celery. — The  greatest  demand  for  celery  is  dur- 
ing the  autumn  and  winter  months,  and  very  little  is 
marketed  during  the  summer.  The  seed  for  autumn  and 


CELERY  241 

winter  celery  is  generally  sown  in  April  in  the  open  ground, 
although  some  of  our  best  growers  sow  the  seed  in  hotbeds 
or  cold  frames  early  in  April,  before  the  land  outdoors  can 
be  worked  at  all.  If  the  seed  is  sown  outside,  a  piece  of 
fine  rich  land  is  generally  selected.  The  seed  is  sown  in 
drills  about  nine  inches  apart  and  one-quarter  inch  deep, 
and  the  soil  is  well  firmed  over  it  after  covering.  Some 
growers  do  not  cover  celery  seed  at  all,  except  by  rolling 
or  patting  it  down  with  the  back  of  a  spade.  If  there  is 
danger  of  the  seeds  drying  out,  some  growers  shade  the  bed 
with  cotton  cloth  or  with,  a  lath  screen  raised  about  one 
foot  from  the  ground  and  so  made  as  to  keep  off  about  one- 
half  the  sunlight.  Another  plan  is  to  cover  the  bed  with 
burlap  after  sowing  the  seed,  and  water  the  seed  through 
it;  in  this  latter  case,  however,  it  is  very  important  to 
watch  carefully  and  remove  the  cloth  covering  as  soon  as 
the  plants  appear. 

The  seed  germinates  slowly.  The  seedlings  are  quite 
weak  and  should  receive  almost  constant  cultivation.  The 
tops  should  be  sheared  off  once  or  twice,  as  recommended 
for  early  celery,  to  make  the  plants  stocky;  they  should 
also  be  thinned  out  so  that  there  will  not  be  over  twenty 
or  thirty  plants  to  the  foot  of  row.  When  sufficiently 
large,  they  should  be  moved  to  the  field  where  they  are  to 
grow.  Treated  in  this  way,  the  plants  will  be  strong  and 
stocky;  if  left  to  crowd  one  another,  they  probably  will  be 
weak  and  poor.  Some  successful  growers  prefer  to  trans- 
plant once  to  narrow  rows  before  setting  in  the  field  where 
the  crop  is  to  mature.  This  makes  the  final  transplant- 
ing most  certain  by  increasing  the  fibrous  roots,  but  is  not 
generally  necessary,  although  a  good  plan  under  unfavor- 
able conditions. 

In  the  growing  of  celery  plants,  it  will  often  be  a  good 


242  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

plan  at  the  first  transplanting  to  make  up  a  special  bed  for 
them.  This  should  be  done  as  follows:  A  place  four  feet 
wide  and  of  any  length  should  be  selected,  the  top  soil  to 
the  depth  of  about  three  inches  thrown  off,  and  then  rotten 
manure  such  as  that  which  comes  from  spent  hotbeds  or 
similar  material  put  in  to  the  depth  of  about  three  inches. 
The  top  soil  should  then  be  returned  and  the  plants  set 
out  in  it.  Treated  in  this  way  the  young  plants  will 
develop  a  compact  root  system  in  the  manure,  and  may  be 
transplanted  with  a  ball  of  roots  almost  as  well  as  if  they 
had  been  grown  in  pots.  Plants  grown  in  this  way  are 
especially  desirable  when  transplanting  must  be  done  in  a 
dry  time,  but  seedbeds  require  much  water. 

Planting. — Having  good  plants,  the  next  thing  is  to 
set  them  so  as  to  get  a  good  crop.  It  is  quite  a  common 
practice  in  some  sections  to  grow  celery  as  a  second  crop 
after  early  peas,  lettuce,  cabbage,  or  beets.  In  such  a 
case  the  plants,  perhaps,  had  better  not  be  set  out  until  the 
first  crop  has  been  gathered ;  but  where  only  one  crop  is  to 
be  grown,  the  plants  may  be  set  as  soon  as  big  enough. 
This  will  generally  be  from  the  middle  to  the  latter  part  of 
June  and,  for  latest  use,  the  latter  part  of  July. 

The  land  should  be  thoroughly  plowed,  harrowed  and 
smoothed  off/  Furrows  six  inches  deep  should  then  be 
made  where  the  plants  are  to  go,  and  in  these  about  three 
inches  of  fine,  well-rotted  manure  or  compost  should  be 
placed.  This  manure  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
soil  and  the  furrow  nearly  filled.  For  mixing  the  manure 
and  soil  perhaps  there  is  no  better  implement  than  a  one- 
horse  cultivator  with  the  teeth  set  close  together.  If  the 
land  is  unusually  rich  in  plant  food,  there  is  no  need  of 
going  to  this  trouble,  but  the  plants  may  be  set  right 
after  the  marker.  In  any  case  the  rows  should  be  four  or 


CELERY 


243 


five  feet  apart  for  the  common  kinds  that  have  to  be 
blanched  by  banking  up  with  earth,  but  the  self-blanching 
and  dwarf  kinds  can  be  managed  in  rows  three  feet  apart. 
The  plants  should  be  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
Before  the  plants  are  dug  from  the  seedbed,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  soaked  with  water ;  the  plants  should  have  the 
tops  cut  off,  trimmed,  and  the  roots  dipped  in  water.  If 


Fig.  103.  Celery  plants  that  have  been  transplanted  from  the  seed  box 
into  moist  soil  rich  in  rotted  manure.  Treated  in  this  way,  the  celery  forms 
a  compact  root  system  to  which  the  soil  adheres  in  lumps  when  the  plants  are 
taken  up,  and  on  this  account  the  plants  are  very  sure  to  start  well  when 
set  out  permanently  in  the  field. 

the  roots  are  very  long  they  should  be  shortened  so  they 
may  be  easily  handled.  The  place  where  they  are  to  be 
planted  should  be  moist,  and  every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  plants'  drying  out  when  they  are 
being  moved.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  plant- 


244  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

ing  on  freshly  plowed  land  and  to  firming  the  soil  around 
the  roots.  If  the  soil  is  dry  it  must  be  watered  before  it 
is  safe  to  set  out  celery  plants,  and  if  the  weather  is  very  hot 
and  dry  the  plants  must  also  be  shaded  from  the  sun.  The 
ground  should  be  kept  clean  and  mellow  between  the 
plants  with  a  horse  cultivator  throughout  the  season. 

If,  while  the  crop  is  growing,  it  is  thought  the  plants 
require  more  food,  it  may  be  supplied  by  plowing  a  shallow 
furrow  away  from  them  on  one  side  and  putting  in  fine  well- 
rotted  stable  manure,  hen  manure,  or  compost  and  covering 
it  with  soil.  This  treatment  supplies  the  food  directly  to 
the  roots  and  is  very  effective.  Nitrate  of  soda  or  other 
nitrogenous  fertilizer  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  in 
this  way. 

Celery  and  Onions  Together. — In  some  sections  celery 
is  grown  as  a  second  crop  with  onions.  In  this  case  every 
fourth  or  fifth  row  is  left  vacant  when  the  onion  seed  is 
sown,  and  this  space  is  set  out  to  late  celery  plants  at  the 
proper  time.  If  the  onion  seed  is  sown  by  the  20th  of 
April,  almost  any  of  the  well-known  commercial  sorts  like 
Yellow  Danvers  or  Red  Wethersfield  will  be  ripe  by  the 
middle  of  August,  when  they  can  be  harvested;  and  then 
the  celery  can  occupy  all  the  land  during  the  cool  weather 
of  autumn,  when  it  makes  most  rapid  growth. 

Handling. — As  celery  grows  naturally  it  spreads  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  like  the  carrot.  The  term  handling 
refers  to  the  process  by  which  the  leaf  stalks  of  each  plant 
are  drawn  together  and  some  earth  pressed  firmly  around 
them  by  the  hands,  to  hold  them  in  an  upright  position. 
After  this  is  done  more  earth  is  drawn  towards  the  plants 
with  a  hoe,  until  there  is  enough  to  prevent  their  spreading 
open.  All  celery  plants  should  have  this  upright  form 
before  being  stored,  and  it  is  all  the  blanching  treatment 


CELERY  245 

necessary  for  the  self-blanching  kinds.  The  land  should 
be  thoroughly  cultivated  and  a  furrow  turned  towards  the 
plants  on  each  side  of  the  row  before  the  handling  process 
is  begun,  so  there  may  be  plenty  of  loose  earth  to  work  with. 
Blanching  with  Earth,  or  *  'Banking." — If  the  celery  is 
intended  for  marketing  previous  to  the  first  of  December,  it 
should  be  banked  up  or  otherwise  blanched  in  the  field. 
Banking  up  is  done  immediately  after  "handling."  It  con- 
sists in  plowing  earth  against  the  celery  to  begin  with  and 
then  finishing  it  off  with  a  shovel  or  wide  hoe  until  the  earth 


Fig.  104.     Celery  banked  up  for  blanching. 


is  banked  up  to  the  full  height  of  the  celery.  This  had 
better  be  done  in  several  operations  as  the  plants  grow  and 
need  it. 

Blanching  with  Boards. — Celery  that  is  to  be  marketed 
early  should  be  blanched  with  boards,  because  if  "banked" 
with  earth  it  is  more  liable  to  become  diseased.  Boards 
ten  inches  wide  are  the  best,  but  narrower  boards  may  be 
used  nearly  as  well,  providing  the  earth  is  first  drawn 
towards  the  plants  for  them  to  rest  on.  The  plants  are 
generally  handled  before  the  boards  are  put  on,  but  this  is 
not  absolutely  necessary,  although  desirable.  A  board 
should  be  put  upon  each  side  of  the  row  quite  close  to  the 


246  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

plants  and  be  held  in  place  with  a  peg.  If  for  any  reason 
there  are  vacancies  in  the  row  or  the  plants  are  not  close 
enough  to  exclude  light  from  the  stalks  when  the  boards 
are  put  up,  the  vacancies  may  be  filled  with  hay  or  straw. 
For  late  autumn  use  it  is  probably  best  to  blanch  the  plants 
with  earth,  as  it  also  protects  from  frost  and  is  much  cheaper 
than  blanching  with  boards,  when  the  first  cost  of  the 
boards  and  the  handling  of  them  are  considered.  In  fact, 
almost  all  growers  use  earth  to  blanch  their  late  celery. 


Fig.  105.     Celery  grown  in  beds  and  earthed  up  to  blanch. 

Planting  in  Beds. — Some  growers  prefer  to  plant  celery 
in  beds  four  feet  wide  and  to  have  the  plants  set  ten  inches 
apart  each  way  in  the  beds;  in  which  case  a  four-foot  path 
is  left  between  the  beds  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and 
weeding.  In  this  way  a  very  large  amount  of  celery  can  be 
grown  on  a  very  small  piece  of  land.  By  putting  boards 
up  on  both  sides  of  the  paths,  the  plants  will  take  on  the 
upright  form,  so  that  handling  will  be  unnecessary. 


CELERY  247 

For  late  use  the  plants  may  be  taken  directly  from  the 
bed  to  the  cellar  without  banking,  but  it  will  generally  be 
found  a  good  plan  late  in  the  fall  to  pack  the  spaces  between 
the  plants  with  hay  or  fill  them  with  earth  from  the  paths, 
as  they  will  then  be  protected  from  frosts.  If  the  celery  is 
to  be  blanched  in  the  bed,  this,  of  course,  would  be  neces- 
sary. To  grow  plants  so  close  together  successfully  requires 
the  utmost  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  land.  It  should 
be  covered  with  fine,  rich  manure,  preferably  in  the  spring; 
the  plants  also  require  to  be  frequently  and  heavily  watered, 
since  the  land  will  be  free  of  roots. 

Digging  Celery. — Celery  will  stand  many  light  frosts, 
but  hard  freezing  is  liable  to  injure  it,  and  it  should  never 
be  handled  when  frozen.  It  is  seldom  safe  to  allow  it  to 
remain  unprotected  in  the  ground  in  the  North  after  the 
middle  of  October,  but  by  covering  the  plants  with  straw 
or  other  material  they  may  often  be  safely  left  in  the  field 
until  the  middle  of  November.  The  plants  are  generally 
lifted  with  a  spade  or  spading  fork  after  a  furrow  has  been 
plowed  away  from  the  row  on  one  side.  Most  of  the  soil 
should  be  shaken  off  the  roots  and  the  old  outside  leaves 
removed  before  storing.  In  this  section,  to  keep  well, 
celery  should  be  stored  in  a  cold,  moist  cellar  or  frost-proof 
shed.  If  it  does  not  whiten  quickly  enough  the  plants 
may  be  watered  and  kept  warm  and  thus  started  into 
growth,  which  results  in  forming  the  tender  white  shoots 
very  quickly. 

Storing  Celery. — For  home  use  a  good  way  to  keep 
celery  is  to  pack  the  plants  closely  together,  upright,  in 
boxes  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  wide,  with  the  bottom  cov- 
ered with  several  inches  of  moist  sand  or  soil,  a  little  of 
which  should  be  worked  in  among  the  roots.  There  is  no 
need  of  having  sand  between  the  plants.  These  boxes, 


248  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

when  packed,  should  be  kept  in  a  cold,  damp  cellar.  In 
storing  for  market  use,  where  there  is  plenty  of  storage 
room,  the  plants  are  sometimes  "heeled  in"  in  sand  on  the 
floor;  the  cheapest  practical  way,  however,  is  to  pack  them 
between  boards  about  nine  inches  apart.  To  do  this,  place 
the  first  board  on  one  side  of  the  cellar  or  shed  nine  inches 
from  the  wall,  with  its  upper  edge  at  a  height  from  the  floor 
a  little  less  than  the  length  of  the  celery.  The  boards  may 
be  supported  by  stakes  and  should  not  rest  on  the  ground. 
In  this  narrow  division  the  celery  should  be  packed  upright 
as  described  for  packing  in  boxes.  As  soon  as  the  first  tier 
is  filled,  erect  another  board  division  at  nine  inches  from 
the  first,  and  so  continue  until  the  whole  surface  is  covered. 
No  soil  or  sand  is  packed  among  the  stalks  of  celery,  but 
three  or  four  inches  of  either  is  placed  on  the  floor,  into 
which  the  roots  are  bedded. 

The  temperature  of  the  celery  should  be  kept  very  low, 
and  even  a  little  frost  in  the  cellar  will  not  hurt  it.  If  dry, 
it  must  be  watered,  but  water  must  not  be  put  upon  the 
leaves,  as  it  may  bring  on  rot.  If  celery  is  wanted  for  imme- 
diate use,  it  may  be  stored  in  barrels  or  troughs  containing 
an  inch  or  two  of  water.  This  is  also  a  very  good  way  of 
hastening  the  blanching  process. 

The  green  stalks  of  celery  do  not  become  white,  for  the 
process  is  not  that  of  blanching.  The  blanching  of  celery 
is  simply  the  result  of  the  plant's  growing  in  the  dark. 
Blanched  celery  will  keep  but  a  short  time  and  should 
be  used  as  soon  as  white.  Celery  for  use  in  the  latter 
part  of  winter  should  be  quite  green  in  color  when  put 
into  winter  storage;  for  early  winter  use  it  should  be  partly 
blanched  when  stored.  For  winter  use  celery  should  be 
left  out  as  late  as  is  safe  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  cellar  or  pit 


CELERY  249 

where  it  is  to  be  stored  may  be  thoroughly  cooled  off  before 
it  is  put  in. 

The  time  required  for  blanching  celery  in  the  field  will 
depend  upon  whether  it  is  growing  rapidly  or  not.  During 
the  first  part  of  September,  when  it  is  making  a  rapid  growth, 
it  will  probably  be  fit  to  use  in  three  weeks  from  the  time 
it  is  banked  up;  while  later  on,  when  the  weather  is  cool  and 
the  celery  is  growing  slowly,  four  weeks  will  be  found  neces- 
sary. The  same  conditions  affect  the  blanching  process 
after  storing.  In  an  ordinary  frost-proof  cellar,  it  may 
easily  be  blanched  in  three  weeks  by  watering  it  and  then 
raising  the  temperature  to  fifty  degrees. 

Celery  seed  is  raised  by  wintering  the  roots  and  planting 
them  out  in  the  spring,  in  much  the  same  way  that  seed  of 
the  carrot  and  other  biennial  plants  is  grown.  Much  of  our 
seed  comes  from  France,  especially  the  self-blanching  varie- 
ties. Th^  variety  Boston  Market  is  grown  near  Boston, 
and  some  of  the  other  kinds  come  from  California.  Fresh 
seed  is  best  to  plant,  but  it  may  be  kept  for  several  years  in 
glass  jars  carefully  sealed.  Good  seed  is  essential  for  success 
in  celery  growing. 

Diseases. — There  are  two  diseases,  rust  and  leaf  blight, 
that  sometimes  seriously  injure  celery,  but  they  are  not 
commonly  very  troublesome.  As  a  rule,  celery  growers  do 
not  attempt  to  fight  them,  but  select  the  healthiest  varie- 
ties and  trust  to  good  cultivation  to  enable  the  plants  to 
resist  them.  The  diseases  referred  to  are  described  as 
follows : — 

Leaf  Blight  (Septoria  petroselini  var.  apii.). — All  parts 
of  the  celery  plant  except  the  roots  are  liable  to  the  attacks 
of  this  fungous  disease.  Watery  spots  appear  on  the  stems 
and  leaves,  which  soon  show  small  black  dots.  This  dis- 


250 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


ease  may  be  spread  by  the  seeds,  which  are  likely  to  become 
infected. 

Treatment. — The  first  precaution  is  to  plant  clean  seed. 
That  which  is  spotted  or  speckled  with  the  black  spots  of 
disease  should  be  avoided.  In  addition  it  would  be  a  good 
plan  to  spray  the  young  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture  on 
the  first  appearance  of  the  disease. 

Celery  Blight,  Rust  or  Sun-Scald — (Cercospora  apli. 
[Fries.]). — The  first  indication  of  this  disease  is  the  ap- 
pearance of  yellowish  spots  on  the  leaves.  These  finally 

run  together  and  turn  the 
entire  leaves  yellow  and  then 
brown. 

Treatment.  —  Secure  as 
healthful  conditions  as  pos- 
sible. Where  the  plants  are 
somewhat  shaded,  they  are 
less  liable  to  the  disease 
than  if  in  the  full  sunlight. 
This  disease  is  especially  bad 
in  very  dry  locations.  It  is 
reported  that  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  and  other  standard 
fungicides  will  entirely  pre- 
vent it. 

Varieties  of  Celery.  — 
The  dwarf  kinds  are  the  best 
to  grow ;  the  red  varieties  are  of  excellent  quality  but  do  not 
take  well  in  the  markets.  For  early  marketing  the  White 
Plume  is  highly  esteemed  and  probably  the  most  profitable 
variety  for  general  marketing.  It  is,  however,  somewhat 
subject  to  blight.  Its  stalks  and  leaves  are  white  without 
going  through  the  blanching  process,  but  are  not  of  as  good 


Fig.  106.     White  Plume  celery. 


CELEK1AV  251 

flavor  as  when  blanched.  Golden  Self  Blanching  is  another 
similar  variety,  that  is  considered  by  some  growers  superior 
to  White  Plume.  Winter  Queen  is  one  of  the  most  exten- 
sively grown  varieties  for  winter  storage.  Other  good  late 
varieties  are  Giant  Pascal  and  Boston  Market. 

Celeriac,  or  Turnip-Rooted  Celery,  is  a  form  of  celery 
cultivated  for  its  roots,  which  are  eaten  either  cooked  or 
raw.  The  stalks  are  generally  hollow  and  quite  worthless. 
The  plants  are  raised  by  the  same  method  as  that  for  celery 
but  may  be  planted  in 
rows  not  over  twelve 
inches  apart.  The  roots 
are  generally  kept  by 
storing  them  in  moist 
sand  the  same  as  carrots. 

The  use  of  celery  as  a 
food  and  relish  has  in- 
creased wonderfully  dur- 
ing the  last  ten  years.  It 
was  formerly  regarded  as 
a  luxury,  while  it  is  now 

recognized       as       a      food.     Fig    107.     Turnip-rooted  celery,  or  celeriac. 

Thousands    of    cars    are 

shipped  annually  from  the  celery  districts  of  Michigan, 
Ohio,  Florida,  Texas,  and  California.  Growers  in  the 
North  find  it  a  very  valuable  crop,  realizing  as  high  as 
one  thousand  dollars  per  acre  from  it. 

Marketing. — Celery  is  marketed  when  well  blanched. 
In  preparing  it  for  market  most  of  the  roots  are  trimmed 
off  and  the  green  and  decaying  leaves  are  removed.  About 
a  dozen  roots  are  generally  tied  together  for  a  bunch,  al- 
though the  size  of  the  bunch  varies  in  different  markets. 
Celery  can  be  easily  shipped  long  distances  when  trimmed 


252 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


and  packed  in  tight  boxes.  Much  of  that  which  is  supplied 
to  the  markets  of  this  section  comes  from  Kalamazoo, 
Michigan,  where  it  is  raised  on  drained  swamp  land. 

THE  MORNING  GLORY  FAMILY  (Order  Convolvulaceae) 

The  Morning  Glory  Family  includes  mostly  twining, 
trailing,  or  rarely  erect  plants.  (Some  tropical  species  are 
shrubs  or  trees;  ours  are  herbs.)  Commonly  with  some 
milky  juice,  alternate  leaves,  no  stipules,  regular  gamopet- 
alous  flowers;  fruit  a  2-to  4-  valved  capsule.  The  sweet 
potato  is  the  only  vegetable  of  this  group  which  is  here 
mentioned.  This  family  also  includes  the  morning  glory, 
bindweed,  and  man  of  the  earth. 

SWEET  POTATO  (Ipomea  batatas} 

Description.  —  Native  of 
South  America.  Perennial, 
but  cultivated  as  an  annual. 
It  is  a  near  relative  of  the 
morning  glory  and  scarcely 
resembles  the  common  po- 
tato in  any  particular.  It 
probably  cannot  be  profit- 
ably raised  in  the  extreme 
Northern  states,  but  may  be 
grown  in  a  small  way  in 
warm,  sandy  soil  as  far  north 
as  Minnesota,  and  will  pro- 
duce even  there  very  large 
potatoes.  The  plant  never 

Fig.  108.     A  hill  of  sweet  potatoes  and    a  ,  t        XT      ^i_          j    • 

a  portion  of  the  vine.  flowers  at  the  North  and  is 

never    cultivated    from  seed. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  important  vegetables  of  the  South. 


POTATO  253 

It   is  estimated  that  the  United  States  produces  about 
50,000,000  bushels  per  year. 

Culture. — The  sweet  potato  is  raised  from  sprouts, 
which  are  produced  abundantly  if  the  potatoes  are  planted 
in  a  hotbed  in  the  early  spring.  The  sprouts  are  carefully 
pulled  from  the  potatoes  and  are  planted  out  after  the  soil 
has  become  warm.  They  should  be  set  two  feet  apart  in 
rows  four  feet  apart.  They  need  considerable  care  until 
started,  after  which  they  require  good  cultivation  only, 
and  are  easily  grown.  The  vines  spread  on  the  ground  and 
have  a  tendency  to  root  at  the  joints,  which  should  be 
discouraged  by  moving  them  at  every  hoeing.  They  are 
very  susceptible  to  cold  weather  and  should  be  pulled  as 
soon  as  the  tops  are  frosted.  There  are  many  cultivated 
varieties  in  the  South.  For  the  Northern  states,  Early 
Carolina  is  perhaps  the  best. 

THE  POTATO  FAMILY  (Order  Solanaceae) 

The  Potato  Family  is  made  up  of  mostly  herbaceous 
plants  with  rank-scented  herbage  (this  and  the  fruit  more 
commonly  narcotic-poisonous),  colorless  juice,  alternate 
leaves,  regular'  flowers  with  the  parts  usually  in  fives. 
There  are  many  poisonous  plants  in  this  group,  which  fact 
led  to  the  tomato's  being  regarded  with  much  suspicion  for 
many  years,  and  the  tops  of  potatoes  and  even  tubers  that 
have  become  green  by  exposure  to  sunlight  contain  a 
poisonous  principle.  Besides  the  potato,  tomato,  eggplant, 
pepper,  and  strawberry  tomato,  whose  cultural  directions 
are  here  given,  tobacco,  petunia,  Nightshade,  Datura, 
Salpiglossis,  Jerusalem  cherry,  and  Nierembergia  of  the 
gardens,  belong  to  this  family. 


254 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


POTATO  (Solanum  tuberosum) 

Description. — Native  of  the  high  mountain  regions  of 
South  America.  Grown  as  an  annual,  but  truly  a  perennial 
through  its  tubers.  Its  stems  are  more  or  less  four-angled. 
The  flowers  vary  in  color  from  white  to  purplish.  Many 
kinds  do  not  flower,  and  most  varieties  seldom,  if  ever, 
produce  fruit.  The  fruit  is  a  roundish  or  slightly  oval  berry, 
of  a  green  color  or  tinged  with  violet  brown,  and  averaging 
about  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  pulp  is  green  and  very 
acrid.  The  seeds  are  white,  kidney-shaped,  and  flat.  The 

seed  is  never  sown  ex- 
cept in  producing  new 
varieties.  Seedlings 
vary  greatly  and  often 
do  not  obtain  full  size 
until  three  years  old. 
The  tubers  are  com- 
monly referred  to  as 
"seed,  "but  they  should 
be  regarded  as  cut- 
tings or  sets;  they  are 
only  swollen  under- 
ground branches  filled 
with  starchy  matter. 
They  vary  much  in 
size  and  shape  and 
in  color  of  skin,  from 
white  to  almost  black,  including  yellow,  red,  and  blue. 
There  are  a  thousand  or  more  named  varieties,  but  many 
of  them  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  other  named  kinds. 

Origin  of  the  Modern  Potato. — Sixty  years  ago  potato 
rot  ran  over  western  Europe  and  the  United  States  to  such 


Fig.  109.     A  hill  of  white  potatoes,  showing 
top,  tubers,  and  roots. 


POTATO  255 

an  extent  as  to  bring  starvation  in  regions  where  potatoes 
were  the  principal  article  of  diet.  No  one  knows  where 
the  potato  came  from  that  was  cultivated  previous  to  that 
time.  Rev.  Chauncey  Goodrich,  of  Utica,  New  York, 
urged  before  agricultural  societies  and  the  agricultural 
committees  of  the  New  York  legislature  that  potato  rot 
resulted  from  lowered  vitality  of  the  potato  plant,  due  to 
its  being  grown  under  high  cultivation  and  in  climates  and 
soils  not  wholly  congenial  to  a  sub- tropical  plant,  native 
to  a  small  section  only  of  the  earth's  surface;  and  he  claimed 
that  the  way  to  restore  its  vigor  would  be  to  get  varieties 
from  the  part  of  South  America  that  was  the  home  of  the 
potato.  His  theories  were  laughed  at  by  scientific  men, 
and  the  legislative  committee  told  him  he  knew  more  about 
theology  than  about  plant  diseases. 

Being  thus  repulsed,  he  attempted  on  his  own  account 
what  he  felt  should  be  undertaken  by  the  state.  Mr. 
Goodrich  commenced  his  experiments  about  1848,  and  at 
various  times  for  many  years  imported  potatoes  from  South 
America,  and  from  these  and  their  progeny  he  raised  many 
seedlings.  Among  eight  kinds  received  at  one  importa- 
tion (probably  from  Chili)  was  a  variety  that  he  called 
the  Rough  Purple  Chili.  It  ripened  late  in  the  season  and 
was  generally  hollow,  but  it  had  flesh  of  fine  texture  and 
was  free  from  rot.  From  seed  saved  from  this  he  raised 
the  Garnet  Chili,  which  was  a  popular  variety  for  many 
years  in  New  York  state.  The  Garnet  Chili  was  parent 
of  the  Early  Rose  and  of  Brazee's  Prolific  and  other  Brazee 
seedlings  and,  indeed,  of  nearly  all  of  the  desirable  varieties 
of  Europe  and  America  which  have  been  prized  for  half  a 
century.  Although  from  some  of  his  other  importations 
he  also  raised  a  few  very  good  sorts,  yet  the  progeny  of 
the  Rough  Purple  Chili  gave  him  the  most  valuable  kinds. 


256  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Among  Goodrich's  other  seedlings  were  Gleason,  Calico, 
Harrison,  and  Early  Goodrich.  The  latter  was  the  parent 
of  the  Chicago  Market. 

Mr.  Goodrich  is  said  to  have  raised  about  sixteen  thou- 
sand seedling  potatoes  from  1848  to  1864.  Out  of  this  large 
number  he  found  only  about  one  in  a  thousand  that  he 
thought  enough  better  than  the  old  sorts  to  make  it  appear 
probable  that  they  would  be  desirable  for  cultivation. 
The  work  that  he  did  in  this  line  has  been  of  great  value  to 
Europe  and  America. 

Soil  and  Manure. — Potatoes  can  be  grown  on  soil  of 
almost  any  composition  provided  it  is  well  drained,  but  a 
light,  sandy  soil  is  best.  It  produces  potatoes  of  better 
table  quality  than  those  grown  on  rather  low,  wet,  or 
heavy  clayey  soils.  New  soil  is  most  desirable.  If  old  soil 
must  be  used,  it  is  best  to  precede  the  potatoes  with  a  crop 
of  clover.  Clover  adds  nitrogenous  plant  food  and  humus 
to  the  soil,  and  makes  it  more  porous.  If  potatoes  are 
planted  on  sod  land,  the  "seed"  should  always  be  under 
the  sod,  otherwise  the  crop  is  liable  to  suffer  from  drought. 
Fresh  manure  should,  preferably,  be  applied  the  year 
before  the  crop  is  to  be  grown.  Where  clover  precedes 
potatoes,  a  good  time  to  apply  the  manure  is  after 
the  first  crop  has  been  cut,  or  during  the  previous 
winter  or  spring.  This  gives  the  manure  time  for  decom- 
position preparatory  to  its  incorporation  with  the  soil. 
Soil  on  which  a  scabby  crop  has  been  produced  should 
not  be  planted  to  potatoes  again  for  a  number  of  years. 

Potato  Rotations. — The  advantages  of  preceding  pota- 
toes with  clover  have  already  been  referred  to.  Rotations 
that  include  this  crop  and  have  been  found  desirable  are  as 
follows : — 

(1)     Three  year:  small  grain,  clover,  potatoes. 


POTATO  267 

(2)     Four  year:  corn,  small  grain,  clover,  potatoes. 

With  the  four-year  rotation  a  good  crop  of  corn  is  pro- 
duced. A  two-year  rotation  consisting  of  clover  and 
potatoes  can  be  followed,  where  the  sod  is  wanted  in  one 
year,  by  sowing  the  clover  alone  on  a  well  prepared  seed 
bed  early  in  the  spring. 

Size  of  Sets  (commonly  called  "seed"). — The  tubers  for 
planting  should  be  sound  and  not  sprouted.  Sprouting 
weakens  their  vitality.  The  potato  is  a  thickened  under- 
ground stem.  The  eyes  contain  several  buds,  which,  like 
the  buds  on  a  willow  cutting,  should  be  dormant  when  set 
out.  Every  piece  of  tuber  cut  for  planting  should  possess 
at  least  one  strong  eye  and  be  large  enough  to  nourish  the 
new  growth  until  well  established.  The  size  of  the  piece  is 
more  important  than  the  number  of  eyes.  If  the  variety 
has  few  eyes,  then  pieces  of  proper  size  will  be  obtained  by 
cutting  to  one  eye.  With  the  average  variety  pieces  of 
good  size  will  have  two  and  frequently  three  eyes.  Per- 
haps fifteen  bushels  per  acre  will  generally  give  the  most 
profitable  returns  with  the  best  cultivation  and  soil.  The 
usual  amount  used  is  from  eight  to  eleven  bushels  per  acre. 

Cutting  the  seed  by  hand  is  the  best  plan  where  potatoes 
are  grown  on  a  small  scale.  Some  machine  cutters  leave  a 
large  number  of  pieces  without  eyes,  especially  with  those 
varieties  having  few  eyes.  Much  of  this  difficulty  can  be 
avoided  by  using  only  hand-feed  cutters. 

Selection  of  Seed  Potatoes. — Varieties  of  potatoes  sel- 
dom retain  their  pristine  vigor  and  productiveness  many 
years,  except  in  very  favorable  locations.  On  some  land, 
even  with  the  best  of  care,  they  are  apt  to  "run  out."  As  a 
rule,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  get  seed  stock  occasionally  from 
locations  favorable  to  the  best  development  of  the  potato, 
or  at  least  to  change  for  seed  potatoes  grown  in  a  different 


258  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

kind  of  soil.  The  continued  use  of  small  tubers  for  sets 
contributes  very  much  to  the  "running  out"  of  varieties. 
Small  tubers  should  never  be  used  except  as  a  last  resort  in 
a  case  of  need.  Many  hills  produce  only  small  tubers,  or 
numerous  small  ones  and  few  large  ones.  By  selecting 
only  small  tubers,  all  of  these  undesirable  hills  are  perpet- 
uated and  not  a  single  hill  that  produced  only  large  tubers  is 
represented.  Hence,  in  selecting  from  bins  it  is  best  to 
take  only  medium  and  moderately  large  ones. 

The  best  way  to  select  is  by  individual  hills  in  the  fall 
during  digging  time,  when  the  product  of  each  hill  can  be 
seen.  Select  those  hills  producing  the  largest  number  of 
moderately  large,  smooth,  well-shaped  tubers.  With  the 
rows  three  feet  apart,  and  the  hills  eighteen  inches  apart  in 
the  row,  if  a  strain  can  be  selected  that  will  produce  only 
six  moderately  well-sized  tubers  per  hill,  weighing  a  total 
of  two  pounds,  it  will  produce  a  yield  of  about  320  bushels 
per  acre.  If  the  crop  is  dug  with  a  machine,  hill  selection 
may  be  carried  on  by  going  over  the  patch  beforehand  and 
digging  up  the  most  vigorous-looking  hills  and  saving  the 
best  ones,  or  by  leaving  a  strip  through  the  best  part  of  the 
field  to  be  dug  by  hand.  If  only  a  few  bushels  can  be 
selected,  plant  them  in  a  separate  strip.  From  this  the 
best  hills  can  be  selected  for  the  next  year's  strip  and  the 
bulk  used  to  plant  the  main  crop. 

Early  Planting. — For  early  use  potatoes  should  be 
planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  nicely  settled.  Light, 
sandy  loam  is  best  for  this  purpose.  The  tops  are  quite 
sensitive  to  frost,  but,  as  they  start  slowly,  they  seldom  get 
up  until  all  danger  from  frost  is  past.  If  there  is  danger 
from  frost  when  the  tops  are  pushing  out  of  the  ground,  the 
plants  are  easily  protected  by  covering  lightly  with  loose 
earth  from  between  the  rows,  through  which  covering  they 


POTATO 


259 


soon  push  again.  If  frozen  off  when  several  inches  high, 
the  crop  is  generally  seriously  lessened,  even  though  new 
sprouts  take  the  place  of  those  injured. 

For  early  crops,  the  ground  may  be  plowed  several 
times  in  the  spring  to  expose  it  to  the  air  and  to  warm  it 
before  planting.  The  sets  for  the  early  crop  should  not  be 
covered  quite  so  deep  as  for  the  main  crop,  but  in  other  par- 
ticulars the  crop  should  be  treated  the  same  way,  and  the 
quickest-maturing  kinds  only  should  be  planted.  It  the 
tubers  for  early  sets  are  spread  out  in  a  light,  warm  room 
for  three  or  four  weeks  before  planting,  healthy  green 
sprouts  wil)  start  from  the  eyes,  and  if,  in  cutting,  these 
sprouts  are  carefully  handled  so  as  not  to  break  them  off, 
the^  crop  will  be  much  earlier  than  if  the  sets  were  not  thus 
started.  They  may  also  be  started  in  a  hotbed  before  or 
after  being  cut  and  afterwards  transplanted  to  the  open 
ground ;  but  these  methods  are  seldom  practiced  except  in 
a  very  small  way,  al- 
though in  some  sections 
they  might  perhaps  be 
made  profitable. 

Main  Crop. — For  the 
main  crop  of  potatoes, 
it  is  desirable  to  have 
the  seed  in  the  ground 
pretty  early.  It  is  cus- 
tomary in  the  North  to 
plant  from  the  middle  of 
May  to  the  first  of  June. 
When  planted  later  they 
are  liable  to  suffer  seri- 
ously from  drought,  and  earlier  planting  is  more  desir- 
able. The  results  of  many  experiments  show  that  the 


Fig.  110. 


One    type  of    self-drop    potato 
planter. 


260  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  ING 

sets  should  be  planted  about  four  inches  deep,  at  sixteen 
inch  intervals,  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  This  work  may 
be  done  by  furrowing  out  with  the  plow  or  horse  hoe,  plant- 
ing by  hand,  and  covering  the  sets  with  the  plow;  though 
when  planted  on  a  large  scale  the  work  is  generally  done  by 
a  potato  planter.  There  are  several  excellent  potato 
planters  on  the  market. 

Some  good  growers  prefer  to  plant  the  sets  in  check 
rows  three  feet  apart  each  way  when  the  land  is  weedy, 
but  so  much  space  between  the  plants  is  not  generally 
profitable,  since  under  ordinary  circumstances  thorough 
harrowing  when  the  crop  is  young  will  destroy  all  weeds. 
If  the  sets  are  planted  four  inches  deep,  very  little  hilling 
up  is  required;  if  planted  much  deeper  the  digging  is  quite 
difficult;  if  planted  nearer  the  surface,  the  tubers  are  liable 
to  push  out  of  the  ground  and  require  to  be  hilled  up, 
which  is  not  desirable. 

The  land  should  be  harrowed  or  thoroughly  cultivated 
with  a  Breed's  weeder  as  soon  as  the  smallest  weeds  can 
be  seen  or  a  crust  forms  on  the  land  after  planting.  It 
is  entirely  practicable  to  harrow  potatoes  at  least  three 
times,  the  first  time  just  before  the  plants  show,  the  second 
when  they  are  just  above  ground,  and  the  third  when  the 
plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high.  Little  if  any  harm 
will  be  done  the  plants  by  this  work,  providing  a  slanting 
tooth  harrow  is  used.  Such  treatment  will  do  more  to 
remove  weeds  than  a  good  hand  hoeing,  and  the  expense 
of  the  operation  is  almost  nothing.  If  the  work  is  properly 
done,  there  is  seldom  any  need  of  hand  work  with  this 
crop. 

Subsequent  cultivation  should  consist  in  keeping  the 
soil  loose  between  the  rows,  and  a  little  earth  should  be 
throvrn  against  the  plants.  For  this  purpose  a  good  horse- 


POTATO  261 

hoe  will  do  excellent  work,  but  a  still  better  implement  is  a 
two-horse  cultivator  that  works  both  sides  of  the  row  at 
one  operation.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  hill  up  potatoes, 
and  it  should  not  be  done  unless  they  are  pushing  out  of  the 
ground,  when  they  will  turn  green  if  not  covered  up.  Cul- 
tivation should  be  thorough  when  the  plants  are  young, 
but  is  not  desirable  after  the  crops  have  made  most  of 
their  growth. 

Digging  Potatoes. — Early  potatoes  are  generally  dug 
as  soon  as  they  are  big  enough  for  cooking  if  there  is  a 
good  market  for  them;  for  winter  use  it  is  very  desirable 
to  have  the  tubers  well  ripened;  if  not  ripe  the  skin  will 
peel  off  when  handled,  and  they  do  not  look  well.  When 
potatoes  are  high  in  price  it  may  pay  to  dig  them  by  hand, 
for  which  purpose  tined  garden  forks  are  desirable;  the 
best  potato  diggers,  however,  do  as  good  work  as  can 
be  done  by  hand,  and  are  generally  used  by  those  who 
raise  this  crop  on  a  large  scale.  When  potatoes  are  cheap, 
they  should  be  dug  with  a  potato  digger  or  plowed  out; 
though  when  plowed  out  some  tubers  will  get  covered  up, 
most  of  these  may  be  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  use 
of  a  straight  tooth  harrow.  If  the  tubers  are  keeping  well 
in  the  ground,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  delay  the  digging  until 
the  cool  weather  of  autumn,  when  they  may  be  carried 
directly  from  the  field  to  the  cellar.  If  they  are  rotting 
in  the  ground  or  are  "scabby,"  they  should  be  dug  at  once, 
and  if  the  cellar  is  cool  they  may  be  put  at  once  irto  it, 
otherwise  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pit  them  in  the  field  until 
cool  weather  comes. 

Pitting  in  mild  weather  is  done  by  putting  the  tubers 
into  heaps  and  covering  them  with  straw  or  hay  and  a 
few  inches  of  loam.  The  straw  should  be  allowed  to 
stick  out  along  the  top  of  the  heap  for  ventilation,  so  as 


262 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


to  allow  the  moisture  to  pass  off.  In  the  colder  weather 
of  late  autumn,  the  covering,  of  course,  should  be  heavier, 
and  when  potatoes  have  ceased  to  sweat  there  is  no  need 
of  ventilation.  In  milder  sections,  potatoes  are  stored 
through  the  winter  in  such  pits,  but  it  is  impracticable 
farther  North.  Even  in  Minnesota,  however,  potatoes 
may  be  safely  kept  over  winter  in  trenches  or  pits  made 
below  the  ground,  although  a  good  cellar  is  a  more  desir- 
able place.  For  this  purpose  the  pit  should  not  be  large; 
a  good  size  is  four  feet  wide  and  deep  and  not  more  than 


Fig.  111.     Cross  section  of  a  winter  potato  pit. 


six  feet  long.  It  should  be  filled  heaping  full  with  potatoes 
and  covered  with  six  inches  of  straw  and  eighteen  of  soil. 
Ventilation  is  given  until  cold  weather  sets  in  and  the 
potatoes  are  cooled  off.  The  whole  pit  should  then  be  cov- 
ered with  enough  litter  or  manure  (generally  about  two  feet) 
to  keep  out  the  frost.  Such  pits  can  only  be  opened  in 
mild  weather.  If  this  work  is  well  done,  the  potatoes 
will  be  in  fine  condition  in  the  spring;  but  beginners  are 
very  apt  to  fail  of  success  in  this  method  of  storing,  and 
they  should  attempt  it  only  on  a  small  scale.  It  is  better 


POTATO 


263 


to  make  several  pits  close  together  rather  than  one  large 
one,  since  in  a  large  one  the  potatoes  are  more  likely  to 
sweat.  The  sunlight  should  not  be  allowed  to  shine  on 
them  for  any  length  of  time,  since  it  causes  them  to  turn 
green  and  develops  a  poisonous  substance  in  them.  If 
kept  in  a  cellar  the  bins  are  improved  by  having  slatted 
floors  and  sides,  so  that  there  may  be  some  circulation  of 
air  through  them  to  prevent  heating  at  the  bottom.  The 
bins  should  not  be  large  nor  more  than  five  feet  deep. 


Fig.   112.     A  potato  storage  house. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  keeping  qualities  of  varie- 
ties ;  as  a  rule  the  early  kinds  are  hard  to  keep  from  sprout- 
ing in  the  latter  part  of  the  winter,  and  the  late  kinds 
keep  the  best. 

Starch. — When  potatoes  are  low  in  price,  they  can 
often  be  profitably  worked  into  starch,  but  for  this  purpose 
starch  factories  must  be  near  by.  Such  factories  are  not 
expensive  and  should  be  more  common  in  potato  sections. 

The  demand  for  potatoes  seems  destined  to  increase 
very  much.  There  is  a  growing  demand  each  year  from 


264 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


the  Eastern  and  Southern  states  for  Northwestern-grown 
potatoes.  Under  cultivation,  in  Minnesota,  they  seldom 
yield  more  than  150  bushels  per  acre  of  marketable  tubers, 
and  the  average  even  in  favorable  years  is  probably  not  over 
120  bushels  per  acre.  There  are,  however,  recorded 
yields  here  of  800  bushels  per  acre,  and  they  often  yield 
over  400  bushels. 

Varieties. — There  is  a  very  great  difference  in  varieties, 
but  many  kinds  closely  resemble  one  another.  There  is 
quite  a  difference  in  the  adaptability  of  varieties  to  soils. 


Fig.  113.     Four  good  varieties  of  early    potatoes;   1,  Acme;   2,  Early  Ohio; 
3,  Early  Harvest;  4,  Irish  Cobbler.      (3  and  4  are  on  a  smaller  scale.) 

The  large  coarser  kinds  are  good  for  starch  but  not 
desirable  for  table  use.  Most  markets  prefer  a  white  or 
pink  potato,  moderately  long,  oval  in  form,  and  smooth; 
but  the  fashions  change  and  vary  considerably.  Some 
of  the  varieties  at  present  regarded  with  much  favor  are : — 

Early  Ohio. — The  most  popular  early  kind  and  a  good 
sort  for  the  general  crop;  productive  and  very  early. 

Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2. — Form  roundish  to  round- 
ish-oblong, flat.  Eyes  shallow.  The  variety  is  very 
productive.  The  quality  is  a  little  inferior,  and  the  tubers 


POTATO 


265 


are  inclined  to  be  hollow.  They  are  influenced  by  the  soil 
in  which  they  are  grown. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  —  Quite  similar  to  the  above. 
Perhaps  a  slightly  heavier  yielder. 

Carman  No.  3.  —  Of  the  same  general  type  as  the  two 
immediately  preceding.  The  quality  is  said  to  be  better 
and  the  yield  perhaps  a  little  less. 


Fig.  114.       Four  good  varieties  of    late    potatoes;      /,  Sir   Walter    Raleigh; 
2,  Rural  New  Yorker;   3,  Carman  No.  1;  4,  Carman  No.  3. 

White  Star. — This  variety  is  largely  supplying  the 
demand  for  a  long  white  potato,  in  place  of  the  Burbank, 
which  is  running  out.  The  eyes  are  not  as  shallow  as  the 
Burbank,  and  the  thickness  not  so  well  carried  out  to  the 
ends. 

Russet. — Tubers  long,  skin  russet,  excellent  for  baking, 
moderate  yielder. 

Other  varieties  of  merit  are:  Acme,  Irish  Cobbler, 
Early  Michigan  (in  good  soil)  and  Early  Harvest  for  early ; 
American  Wonder,  Carman  No.  1,  and  White  Elephant 
for  late. 

Note  on  Propagation. — New  varieties  of  potatoes  are 
generally  high  in  price,  and  it  is  desirable  to  increase  them 


266 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


rapidly.  This  may  be  done  as  follows:  Place  the  tubers 
in  rich  soil  in  boxes  or  pots,  without  cutting  them,  in  a 
warm,  light  room,  hotbed,  or  greenhouse.  As  soon  as  the 
sprouts  are  nicely  furnished  with  roots,  break  them 
off  at  the  surface  of  the  potato  below  the  roots  and  plant 
separately  in  pots.  New  sprouts  will  start  from  the  eyes 
again,  and  the  process  may  be  repeated  until  the  tuber 
is  exhausted.  By  another  way  the  tubers  are  cut  up  and 
planted  in  good,  rich  loam.  As  soon  as  the  shoots  are 


Fig.  115.     Some  degenerate  types  of  potatoes. 

six  inches  or  more  high,  about  three  inches  are  cut  off  the 
top  of  each.  These  pieces  are  put  in  moist  sand,  watered 
frequently,  and  allowed  all  the  sunlight  they  will  stand 
without  wilting,  and  treated  the  same  as  it  is  common 
to  treat  cuttings  of  house  plants.  In  two  or  three  weeks 
they  will  be  well  rooted  and  may  be  potted  in  rich  soil.  These 
shoots  may  again  be  cut  when  nicely  started,  and  so  on. 
The  plants  thus  grown  are  planted  out  when  the  weather 
is  settled  in  the  spring.  For  best  success  with  these 
methods  of  propagation,  the  work  should  begin  in  the 
late  winter  or  very  early  spring. 


POTATO  267 

Insects. — There  are  but  few  insects  that  do  serious 
injury  to  the  potato  in  this  section,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  is  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  or  "potato-bug," 
but  it  may  also  be  injured  by  blister  beetles,  wire  worms, 
and  white  grubs.  (For  remedies  for  these  pests,  see 
chapter  on  insects.) 

Diseases. — There  are  several  diseases  that  sometimes 
injure  the  potato.  The  most  common  of  these  are  known 
as  the  scab  and  the  blight.  Scab  is  a  term  used  to  refer 
to  the  rough  patches  with  which  potatoes  are  frequently 
covered.  Potatoes  so  infected  are  lessened  in  yield,  and 
on  account  of  being  unsightly  and  rough  do  not  sell  readily. 
The  term  blight  refers  to  a  disease  that  kills  the  tops. 

Scab  of  potatoes  is  caused  by  a  fungous  plant  working 
in  the  surface  of  the  potato.  The  germs  of  it  are  very 


Fig.  116.     Potato  scab.     Both  groups  were  grown  from  the  same  lot  of 
scabby  seed, — those  on  the  left  from  treated  seed;  those  on  the  right,  untreated. 

abundant  and  live  for  many  years  in  the  soil  and  also 
over  winter  on  the  potatoes.  If  these  germs  are  fed  to 
stock  they  undoubtedly  grow  in  the  manure,  and  the  use 
of  such  manure  may  often  be  the  cause  of  infection.  Also 


268  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

they  may  be  spread  in  the  soil  by  natural  drainage  and  the 
land  receiving  the  drainage  from  infected  fields  may  be- 
come infected  with  the  disease  without  ever  having  had 
potatoes  on  them.  Scabby  seed  potatoes  when  planted  on 
new  or  old  potato  land  will  generally  produce  a  scabby 
crop,  but  the  amount  of  the  disease  will  generally  be 
much  more  on  the  old  land  than  on  the  new. 

Perfectly  clean  seed  potatoes  planted  in  soil  free  from 
the  scab  fungus  will  always  and  in  any  season  produce  a 
crop  of  smooth,  clean  potatoes,  no  matter  what  may  be 
the  character  of  the  soil ;  but  apparently  clean  seed  potatoes 
may  have  the  germs  of  the  scab  fungus  on  their  surface. 
This  is  often  the  case  where  they  have  been  sorted  out 
from  a  lot  that  is  somewhat  infected  with  scab.  In  this 
latter  case  the  tubers  should,  at  least,  be  thoroughly 
washed  in  running  water  to  remove  any  germs  that  may 
be  present  or,  what  is  better  yet,  be  treated  with  corrosive 
sublimate  (mercuric  bichloride)  as  recommended  below. 

Land  infected  by  the  germs  of  potato  scab  will  pro- 
duce a  more  or  less  scabby  crop,  no  matter  how  clean  and 
smooth  the  seed  used. 

Scabby  potatoes  should  be  dug  as  soon  as  mature, 
since  the  scab  fungus  continues  to  grow  on  the  potatoes 
as  long  as  they  are  in  the  ground. 

Scabby  potatoes  may  be  safely  used  for  seed  provided 
they  are  first  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  destroy  the  germs 
of  the  scab  that  adhere  to  them.  There  are  many  methods 
of  doing  this  but  the  most  practical  now  used  are  as  follows: 

Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment. — Procure  from  a  drug- 
gist two  ounces  of  powdered  corrosive  sublimate  (mer- 
curic bichloride);  put  this  into  two  gallons  of  hot  water 
in  a  wooden  or  an  earthenware  vessel  and  allow  it  to  stand 
until  dissolved.  Place  thirteen  gallons  of  water  in  a  clean 


POTATO  269 

barrel,  pour  in  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  and 
allow  it  to  stand  two  or  three  hours,  with  frequent  stir- 
rings in  order  to  have  the  solution  uniform.  Select  pota- 
toes nearly  free  from  scab  as  can  be  obtained ;  put  the  seed 
potatoes  into  bags,  either  before  or  after  cutting  them; 
then  dip  them  into  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution 
and  allow  them  to  stay  in  for  an  hour  and  a  half.  If 
seed  potatoes  are  treated  in  this  way  and  then  planted  on 
land  free  from  scab,  the  resultant  crop  will  seldom  be 
seriously  injured  by  scab.  The  expense  of  this  treatment 
including  labor,  should  not  exceed  one  dollar  per  acre, 
as  the  material  may  be  used  repeatedly.  But  the  treat- 
ed potatoes  should  never  be  fed  to  animals,  as  corrosive 
sublimate  is  a  deadly  poison. 

Formalin  Treatment. — This  material  should  be  mixed 
with  water  at  the  rate  of  eight  ounces  (one  half  pint)  of 
commercial  formalin  to  fifteen  ga'llons  of  water.  The 
potatoes  should  be  soaked  two  hours  in  it.  If  this  method 
is  used  the  seed  should  be  planted  within  two  or  three 
days  after  treatment.  This  material  gives  equally  as 
good  results  as  corrosive  sublimate.  It  is  slightly  more 
expensive,  but  the  expense  is  light  in  any  case.  It  has, 
however,  great  advantages  over  the  latter  in  that  it  is 
not  poisonous  and,  being  a  liquid,  is  easily  diluted  for  use 
and  may  be  used  in  almost  any  kind  of  receptacle.  This 
material  does  not  in  any  way  injure  the  tubers  or  make 
them  dangerously  poisonous.  One  pound  of  formalin, 
costing  not  more  than  fifty  cents,  will  make  thirty  gallons 
of  the  disinfecting  solution  and  is  enough  to  treat  fifty 
bushels  of  potatoes.  If  the  solution  stands  a  long  time 
it  will  probably  lose  strength. 

Exposing  to  Light. — If  the  tubers  are  exposed  to  the 
full  sunlight  for  several  weeks  before  planting,  the  scab 


270  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

germs  will  be  largely  destroyed.  It  would  be  a  good  plan 
to  turn  such  potatoes  occasionally  in  order  to  expose  them 
fully  to  the  light. 

Blight  of  potatoes  is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  leaves 
and  stems  of  potatoes,  and  sometimes  even  the  tubers  are 
affected.  It  is  most  prevalent  during  moist,  warm  weather, 
when  sometimes  the  fungus  may  be  seen  as  a  delicate 
white  mildew  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the  potato  vines. 
In  seasons  favorable  to  it,  the  tops  of  an  entire  field  may 
be  killed  in  a  few  days  from  the  time  the  disease  was  first 
noticed;  at  other  times  the  tops  die  so  gradually  that  it 
is  mistaken  for  natural  dying  of  the  vines.  Rotting  of  the 
tubers  often  follows  the  dying  of  the  tops.  It  has  been 
quite  clearly  shown  that  this  disease  may  be  kept  in  check 
or  the  trouble  entirely  prevented  by  spraying  the  tops 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  occasionally.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  doubtful  about  the  benefits  being  sufficiently 
certain  in  the  Northwest  to  justify  the  expense;  but  should 
this  disease  become  more  abundant  spraying  may  prove 
a  paying  operation.  The  cost  of  treating  one  acre  with 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  is  about  $5.  There  is  little  use 
of  applying  this  mixture  after  the  damage  from  the  disease 
is  apparent,  for  it  is  a  preventive  and  must  be  used  be- 
fore the  disease  is  seen. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  as  follows:  Dissolve  five 
pounds  of  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper)  in  ten  gallons 
of  water  in  a  wooden  or  earthenware  vessel.  As  this 
substance  dissolves  very  slowly  in  cold  water  and  solu- 
tions of  it  are  very  heavy,  it  is  well  to  suspend  it  near  the 
top  of  the  water.  (It  dissolves  more  quickly  in  hot  water.) 
In  another  vessel,  slake  five  pounds  of  good,  fresh  quick- 
lime in  ten  gallons  of  water.  When  the  mixture  is  wanted, 
pour  the  blue  vitriol  and  lime  slowly  at  the  same  time  into 


EGGPLANT 


271 


a  barrel  containing  thirty  gallons  of  water,  stirring  all  the 
time.  When  thoroughly  stirred  the  mixture  should  be 
of  a  clear  sky  blue  color.  After  being  mixed  for  a  day  or 
two  the  mixture  loses  much  of  its  strength,  so  it  is  well 
to  use  only  that  which  has  been  mixed  for  a  short  time. 
There  are  many  formulas  used,  which  vary  as  to  the  amount 
of  lime  and  water,  but  the  above  gives  good  satisfaction 
when  used  properly. 

Internal  brown  rot  is  the  name  given  to  a  disease 
which  has  recently  appeared  in  a  few  potato-growing 
sections-  of  this  country.  It  is  first  noticed  by  the  dark- 
ening more  or  less  of  the  starchy  portion  of  the  tubers, 


Fig.  117.     Internal   brown  rot  of  the  potato.     (Maine 
Bui.  149.) 

without  any  manifestation  of  its  presence  on  the  outside; 
later  on  the  potato  rots.  The  life  history  of  this  disease 
is  not  known,  nor  are  any  remedies  known  for  it.  Or- 
dinary prudence,  however,  would  indicate  that  seed 
potatoes  in  the  least  affected  with  this  trouble  should 
not  be  planted. 

EGGPLANT  (Solanum  melongena) 

Description. — Native  of  South  America.  An  annual. 
Stem  erect  and  branching;  flowers  solitary  and  violet  in 
color;  seeds  flat  and  of  medium  size.  The  eggplant  is  but 
little  used  in  this  section,  but  can  be  grown  to  perfec- 
tion in  our  hot,  dry  summers.  The  seed  must  be  sown 


272  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

even  earlier  than  tomato  seeds,  in  the  greenhouse  or  hot- 
bed; but  when  only  a  few  plants  are  wanted  it  will  be 
found  best  to  buy  the  plants,  as  they  require  delicate 
handling.  The  plants  are  set  in  rows  three  by  two  feet 
apart,  after  the  ground  is  well  warmed  up,  which  is  seldom 
before  the  10th  of  June. 

The  fruit  attains  marketable  size  by  the  last  of  August. 
The  plants  are  very  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  potato 
beetle. 

The  best  variety  is  the  New  York  Purple,  but  the 
variety  known  as  the  Long  Purple  is  somewhat  earlier.  The 
New  York  Improved  Black  Beauty,  Black  Pekin,  Early 
Long  Purple,  and  Ivory,  the  white  variety,  are  the  prin- 
cipal kinds  grown  for  the  market. 

TOMATO  (Ly coper sicum  esculentum) 

Description. — Native  of  South  America.  A  perennial, 
but  generally  treated  as  an  annual.  The  tomato  is  a 
branching  plant,  generally  with  flexible  stems  that  require 
support  to  grow  erect.  Its  flowers  are  yellowish  and 
grow  in  loose  clusters  on  the  stem;  opposite  or  nearly 
opposite  leaves,  not  axillary;  fruit  a  true  berry,  red,  pink, 
or  yellow  in  color;  seed  kidney-shaped,  flat,  with  a  rough- 
ened surface.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  tomato 
can  be  successfully  grown  as  a  market  crop,  and  there  is 
no  place  where  it  can  not  be  grown  in  sufficient  quantities 
for  home  use.  The  cultivation  of  this  vegetable  for  can- 
ning purposes  is  already  occupying  the  attention  of  farmers 
in  a  few  localities  in  this  section,  and  it  is  an  industry  that 
is  destined  to  greatly  increase  in  the  future.  It  is  one  of 
the  easiest  and  surest  crops  to  grow,  providing  one  has 
good  plants  to  start  with. 


TOMATO  273 

Growing  the  Plants. — It  is  especially  important  to 
sow  the  seed  before  the  first  of  April,  and  the  middle  of 
March  is  thought  about  the  right  time  by  most  growers. 
The  seed  grows  easily  but  needs  considerable  heat  and 
rich  soil  to  do  its  best.  The  plants  should  be  transplanted 
after  they  have  their  second  leaves  and  again  when  they 
get  crowded,  so  that  they  may  become  stocky  and  strong. 
The  seed  may  be  started  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds;  it  is 
also  easily  grown  in  window  boxes.  If  too  close  together, 
they  grow  weak  and  poor.  It  is  very  important  that  the 
plants  should  be  well  hardened  off  before  they  are  set  in 
the  open  ground. 

The  land  preferred  for  tomatoes  is  a  rich,  retentive 
sandy  loam,  but  they  will  do  fairly  well  on  almost  any 
well-drained  soil,  and  even  if  on  rather  poor  soil  will  do 
better  than  most  crops.  A  southern  slope  is  preferable, 
but  they  will  ripen  almost  anywhere  if  properly  managed. 
The  tomato  pre-eminently  needs  a  warm  place,  and  if 
rich  manure  is  plowed  into  the  soil  it  is  beneficial,  since 
by  its  fermentation  it  raises  the  temperature  of  the  land. 

Transplanting  and  After-cultivation. — The  plants  should 
be  moved  to  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  all  danger  of 
severe  frost  is  past,  which  will  generally  be  about  the  20th 
of  May  in  southern  Minnesota,  and  not  until  the  1st  of 
June  in  more  northern  sections.  They  should  be  set 
about  five  feet  apart  each  way  and  about  six  inches  deep. 
If  the  stems  of  the  plants  when  planted  out  are  very  long, 
they  should  be  partly  buried  under  ground.  They  need 
thorough  cultivation,  which  can  best  be  given  by  a  horse 
cultivator  on  a  large  scale. 

Pruning  and  Training. — Tomato  plants  under  field 
cultivation  are  generally  allowed  to  run  over  the  ground 
in  any  direction  and  are  not  trained;  but  even  under  this 


274  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

method  of  management  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  off  a  foot 
or  more  of  the  ends  of  all  growing  shoots  about  the  middle 
of  August  if  they  are  growing  rapidly,  so  that  all  the  strength 
of  the  plant  may  go  to  ripen  the  fruit  that  is  well  formed 
and  still  green.  Some  growers  advise  pruning  off  all  but 
one  main  stem  and  two  or  three  laterals  and  training  to 
a  stake,  and  then  pinching  off  all  flower  clusters  after  a 
few  have  set  fruit.  The  result  of  this  practice  is  that 
earlier  and  larger  fruit,  but  not  so  much  of  it,  is  borne  on 
the  plant.  It  is  a  good  plan  in  a  small  garden  to  cover  the 
soil  under  the  vines,  after  they  set  fruit,  with  a  little  hay, 
so  that  the  fruit  may  be  kept  from  getting  dirty  in  case 
they  are  not  trained.  This  covering  should  not  be  heavy 
enough  to  keep  the  ground  from  getting  plenty  of  sunlight. 
Plants  may  also  be  supported  on  barrel  hoops  or  other 
supports,  to  keep  the  fruit  off  the  ground. 

Tomatoes  in  Very  Severe  Locations. — When  there  is 
danger  of  frost  in  August,  a  sufficient  supply  of  tomatoes 
for  family  use  may  be  grown  on  the  south  side  of  a  house, 
wall,  or  other  protection,  especially  if  the  plants  are  covered 
on  cold  nights.  Where  this  seems  to  be  impracticable, 
a  most  excellent  way  is  to  grow  a  few  plants  in  barrels 
placed  in  warm  corners  about  the  buildings.  To  do  this, 
at  planting  time  select  a  barrel  as  large  as  a  coal  oil  barrel, 
bore  three  or  four  holes  in  the  bottom,  sink  the  barrel 
about  one-third  its  depth  in  the  ground  and  pack  the  earth 
around  it.  Fill  it  about  half  full  of  fresh  horse  manure 
well  tramped  down,  and  pour  a  bucketful  of  hot  water  on 
this  manure.  Then  put  on  eight  inches  of  good  soil  and 
then  a  mixture  of  well-rotted  manure  and  rich  black  loam 
in  about  equal  quantities,  up  within  about  twelve  inches 
of  the  top  of  the  barrel;  then  heap  up  manure  around  the 
outside.  Set  three  plants  in  this  and  trim  to  two  shoots 


TOMATO 


275 


each.  Train  one  of  these  shoots  from  each  plant  to 
stakes  or  a  near-by  building,  but  allow  the  other  three 
shoots  to  grow  naturally  over  the  sides  of  the  barrel. 
Be  careful  to  give  plenty  of  water  daily — a  gallon  each 
day  will  be  none  too  much.  Three  or  four  old  barrels 
treated  in  this  way  and  placed  in  a  sunny  exposure  will 
produce  all  the  tomatoes  needed  by  a  family  of  four  or 
five  persons. 

Prolonging  the  Tomato  Season. — In  autumn  the 
tomato  season  may  be  prolonged  by  pulling  the  plants 
with  the  unripened  fruit  on  them  and  hanging  them  in  a 
shed,  where  they  will  continue  to  ripen  fruit  for  some  time. 
The  larger  tomatoes  will  ripen  very  well  if  picked  off  and 
kept  in  a  shady  place. 

Saving  Tomato  Seed. — Tomato  seed  should  be  saved 
from  the  best  tomatoes  from  vines  producing  the 
largest  amount  of  good  fruit.  The  tomatoes  should  be 
thrown  .into  a  barrel  as 
fast  as  they  ripen  and  be 
allowed  to  ferment  until 
the  seed  separates  readily 
from  the  pulp,  when  they 
should  be  put  into  water 
and  thoroughly  stirred. 
The  skin  and  pulp  being 
lighter,  the  seed  is  readily 
separated  from  it.  The 
seed  should  be  dried  at 
once  by  spreading  it  out 

ji  •    i  i  i  showing  the  small   seed    cavities   ana   THICK 

thinly   m   a  dry    place.  walls  of  good  shipping  sorts.     (U.  S.  Farmers' 

Varieties.— There  are  BuL  22° 

many  good  varieties  of  tomatoes.  June  Pink  is  good  for 
early,  but  lacks  the  color  desired  on  the  market.  Acme 


Fig.   118.       Cross     section     of     tomato, 
the  small   seed    cavities   and   thick 


276 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


and  Dwarf  Champion  are  good  second-early  pink-skinned 
varieties.  Selected  strains  of  Spark's  Earliana  are  the 
best  for  early  red  tomatoes.  For  late  red-skinned  varie- 
ties, Beauty  seems  to  be  quite  a  favorite,  and  Stone, 
an  old  standard,  is  also  good.  It  does  not  usually  pay 
to  grow  the  earliest  varieties  for  general  crop,  since  they 
are  inferior.  In  many  unfavorable  localities,  however,  it 
may  be  best  to  grow  them,  as  they  do  very  well  for  home 
use. 

Marketing. — Tomatoes  are  sold  in  various  sorts  of 
packages,  holding  from  a  few  pounds  to  a  bushel.  Can- 
ning factories  pay  from 
$7to$10perton.  Yields 
will  run  from  500  to 
1,000  bushels  per  acre, 
depending  on  the  man- 
agement of  the  crop. 

Insects. — The  toma- 
to is  subject  to  few 
insect  pests.  It  is  some- 
times attacked  by  the 
potato  beetle.  The  rem- 

edy  is  Paris  green  and  water,  as  recommended  for  the 
same  insect  when  it  attacks  the  potato. 

Tomato  Rot. — There  are  several  diseases  that  attack 
the  tomato  when  grown  in  greenhouses,  but  only  that 
known  as  the  "rot"  is  often  seriously  injurious  to  plants 
grown  in  the  open  field.  This  is  a  fungous  disease,  the  germs 
of  which  lodge  in  the  ends  of  the  young  fruits,  probably 
often  just  as  the  flowers  fall  off.  By  their  growth  they  rot 
the  ends  of  the  tomatoes  and  often  cause  much  loss. 

Remedies. — The  disease  lives  over  winter  in  the  ground 
where  the  rotten  tomatoes  have  fallen.  The  diseased  fruit 


GROUND  CHERRY 


277 


should  therefore  be  gathered  and  burned  or  buried  a  foot 
or  more  deep,  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed  in  the  spring. 
Some  varieties  are  much  more  liable  to  rot  than  others. 
The  Dwarf  Champion  is  perhaps  less  affected  than  many 
other  kinds.  Experiments  with  spraying  the  young 
fruit  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  a  solution  of  sulphide 
of  potassium  at  the  rate  of  one-half  ounce  per  gallon,  are 
said  to  have  given  good  results  in  some  cases,  but  it  is 
generally  considered  impracticable  to  do  this,  on  account 
of  the  labor  necessary  to  do  the  work  well.  They  are  less 
liable  to  rot  when  growing  on  new  land  than  on  land  that 
has  been  used  for  several  years  in  tomatoes. 

GROUND  CHERRY,  OR  STRAWBERRY  TOMATO  (Physalis  sp.) 

Description.  —  Native  of  North 
and  South  America.  A  perennial. 
There  are  several  species  of  Physalis 
that  produce  edible  fruit.  Among 
those  indigenous  to  northern  United 
States  is  one  quite  common  in  old 
timber  land  in  northern  Minnesota 
and  elsewhere.  The  fruit  resembles 
a  tomato  but  is  about  the  size  of  a 
cherry  and  is  enclosed  in  a  husk 
formed  of  the  calyx.  The  seed  is 
dark  colored,  flat,  and  round.  The 
fruit  is  used  for  preserves  and  sauces. 

Culture.— It   is  a   plant   of   the       Fig.  120.   Ground  cher- 
earliest  culture  and  when  once  sown  Ty>  or  8trawberrv  tomato- 
generally  covers  the  ground  in  following  years  from  self- 
sown  seed.     The  seed  should  be  planted  about    the  first 
of  May.       The  plants  spread  about  thirty  inches. 


278  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

PEPPERS  (Capsicum  annuum) 

Description. — Native  of  South  America.  A  peren- 
nial, but  in  cultivation  is  grown  as  an  annual.  There  are 
many  varieties,  differing  chiefly  in  the  shape  of  their  fruit. 
All  of  them  have  erect,  branching  stems,  which  become 
almost  woody.  The  leaves  are  spear-shaped;  flowers 
white,  star-shaped,  solitary  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves;  fruit 
generally  hollow  with  a  somewhat  fleshy  skin,  at  first  dark 
green,  but  when  ripe  turning  yellow,  red,  or  dark  violet. 


Fig.  121.  Varieties  of  peppers;  /,  Bird's  Eye;  2,  Tomato  Shaped;  ?,  New 
Orleans;  4,  Golden  Bell;  5,  Very  Small  Cayenne;  6,  Sweet  Spanish;  7,  Cluster; 
8,  Ruby  King;  9,  Celestial.  (After  Landreth.) 

The  seeds  are  flat,  and,  like  the  flesh  of  the  pods,  have  a 
very  acrid,  burning  taste,  for  which  the  plant  is  cultivated 
and  used  in  giving  flavor  to  pickles,  etc.  Their  germinating 
power  lasts  about  four  years  after  being  separated,  but  if 
left  in  the  pods  they  will  keep  much  longer  without  injury. 
Culture. — Peppers  need  practically  the  same  culti- 
vation as  the  tomato  or  eggplant,  except  that  they  may 
be  planted  two  feet  apart,  in  rows  three  feet  apart. 


MARTYNIA  279 

Varieties  vary  much  in  the  shape  of  the  pods  and  the 
acridity  of  their  juice.  The  kinds  most  commonly  grown 
are  as  follows: — 

Ruby  King. — Fruit  very  large,  bright  red,  smooth, 
mild  flavored  and  prolific.  The  best  for  general  use. 

Long  Red  Cayenne. — Fruit  long  and  slender.  Very 
pungent. 

Other  varieties  are  Bull  Nose,  Chinese  Giant,  and 
Neapolitan. 

THE  MARTYNIA  FAMILY  (Order  Martyniaceae) 
MARTYNIA  (Martynia  probosidea)  • 

Description. — Native  of  southwestern  United  States. 
An  annual.  A  coarse-growing,  spreading  plant,  having  a 
peculiar-shaped  fruit  that  is  used  for 
pickles.  The  flowers  are  large,  irregu- 
lar, and  rather  pretty.  The  fruit  is 
tender  when  young,  but  is  nearly  as 
hard  as  horn  when  ripe.  The  seeds 
are  black,  with  a  rough  surface. 

Culture. —  This  is  a  plant  of  the 
easiest  culture.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  the  soil  settles  in  the  Fig-  122' 
spring,  in  hills  about  three  feet  apart  each  way.  Where 
seeds  are  allowed  to  ripen,  plants  usually  appear  the 
following  spring.  There  is  only  one  kind. 

THE  GOURD  FAMILY  (Order  Cucurbitaceae) 

The  Gourd  Family  is  made  up  mostly  of  tendril-bearing 
herbs,  with  succulent  but  not  fleshy  herbage,  watery  juice, 
alternate  palmately  ribbed  and  mostly  angled  or  lobed 
leaves,  pistillate  and  staminate  flowers  separate  and  both 
kinds  generally  on  the  same  plant.  The  calyx  is  grown 


280  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

to  ovary;  petals  commonly  united;  stamens  usually  three, 
of  which  one  has  a  one-celled  and  the  others  two-celled 
anthers,  but  commonly  the  anthers  are  much  twisted  and 
often  all  combined  into  a  head,  and  the  filaments  are 
sometimes  grown  into  a  column.  The  fruit  is  unusually 
fleshy  and  the  seed  is  flat  and  made  up  entirely  of  embryo. 
It  is  commonly  believed  that  some  of  the  species  in  this 
group  readily  cross,  but  if  it  occurs  at  all  it  is  but  rarely, 
and  squash  and  pumpkins  have  never  been  successfully 
crossed  with  melons.  Besides  the  squash,  pumpkin,  musk- 
melon,  waterjnelon,  and  cucumbers,  whose  cultural  direc- 
tions are  here  given,  there  occur  in  this  family  the  gourd 
and  the  wild  cucumbers  of  the  gardens. 

SQUASH  (Cucurbita) 

The  term  squash  does  not  signify  any  botanical  division, 
but  is  an  American  name  that  is  applied  to  a  large  number 
of  varieties  of  gourds  which  in  common  parlance  have 
come  to  be  classified  separately.  The  term  often  includes 
what  are  sometimes  called  pumpkins. 

The  term  gourd  is  applied  to  all  the  members  of  Cucur- 
bita pepo  and  includes  the  Scallop  and  Crookneck  squashes, 
field  pumpkins,  and  the  small,  very  hard-shelled  fruits 
of  many  shapes  and  colors  borne  on  slender  vines  that 
are  grown  chiefly  as  curiosities  under  the  name  of  gourds. 
The  latter  are  what  are  commonly  known  as  gourds. 

Pollenizing  the  Flowers. — The  flowers  resemble  those  of 
the  cucumber  and  melon,  being  separate  on  the  same  vine. 
The  pistillate  flower  is  produced  at  the  end  of  the  miniature 
squash;  the  staminate  flower  is  often  called  the  "false 
blossom,"  and  its  office  is  to  produce  pollen  only.  They 
are  naturally  pollinized  by  insects. 


SQUASH 


281 


The  crop  is  made  more  certain  by  having  bees  near 
by  to  pollinize  the  flowers.  In  some  places,  the  absence 
of  many  insects  is  the  reason  why  cucumbers,  melons,  and 
squashes,  which  are  similar  in  the  construction  of  their 
flowers,  fail  to  produce  much  fruit,  though  the  vines  may 
grow  freely.  This  is  a  common  complaint  in  some  new 
prairie  sections,  as  there 
is  often  a  deficiency  of 
pollinizing  insects  in  such 
places.  Where  small  cu- 
cumbers, squashes,  and 
melons  fall  off  and  fail  to 
mature,  this  matter  of 
pollination  should  be 
closely  studied,  and  if  in- 
sects are  not  present  the 
work  can  be  quickly  and 
easily  done  by  hand.  For 
this  purpose  a  rather  large 
camel's  hair  brush  is  used, 
which  can  be  filled  at  one 
time  with  enough  pollen 
from  a  few  male  flowers 
to  pollinize  twenty  or 
more  female  flowers. 

The  seed  is  oval  and 
flat,  generally  white  or  yellow,  but  varies  greatly  in  size. 
There  is  a  common  belief  among  gardeners  that  vines 
from  old  seed  do  not  grow  as  strong  as  those  from  new 
seed,  but  produce  more  fruit.  This  seems  to  be  borne 
out  by  some  experiments. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  the  squash  and   the 
pumpkin   is   much    the   same   as   for   cucumbers.     About 


Fig.  123.  Flowers  of  the  squash;  at  the 
left,  two  staminate  (male)  flowers;  at  the 
right,  two  pistillate  (female)  Bowers. 


282  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

six  seeds  should  be  put  in  each  hill.  The  hills  should 
be  eight  feet  apart  each  way  for  the  longer-growing  kinds, 
and  five  feet  apart  for  the  bush  sorts.  The  plants  should 
be  thinned  out  after  they  are  established  so  as  to  allow 
two  plants  to  each  hill.  They  are  affected  by  the  same 
insect  pests  as  the  cucumber,  and  the  same  remedies  are 
in  order.  In  addition,  however,  to  these,  some  kinds  are 
affected  in  the  Eastern  states  by  a  borer  that  works  in 
the  stem,  and  by  the  squash  bug.  (See  chapter  on  insects.) 

The  early  varieties  of  the  squash  are  sometimes  started 
in  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  to  advance  them  and  thus 
avoid  serious  injury  from  the  striped  beetle. 

Harvesting.—  Summer  squash  are  not  grown  for  storing 
and  are  not  desirable  for  table  use  except  before  the  skin 
hardens,  when  they  are  used  entire.  Winter  squash  are 
excellent  for  use  in  a  green  state  but  are  not  gathered 
for  storing  until  the  skin  is  hard.  They  should  always 
be  gathered  upon  the  approach  of  frosty  weather,  as  a 
very  little  frost  injures  their  keeping  qualities,  although 
the  injury  may  not  be  apparent  when  gathered.  It  is  a 
good  plan  in  harvesting  them  to  place  them  in  piles  in  the 
field,  leaving  them  exposed  to  the  sun  during  the  day 
and  covering  them  with  the  vines  or  other  material  every 
frosty  night  until  they  are  thoroughly  dried  and  the  skins 
have  become  hard  and  flinty.  In  gathering,  cut  the  stem 
off  not  over  an  inch  from  the  squash,  for  if  the  stem  is 
left  on  it  is  likely  to  be  used  as  a  handle  and  be  broken 
off  and  thus  leave  a  spot  that  is  very  sure  to  start  to  rotting. 
Squashes  should  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care  if  they 
are  to  be  kept  successfully,  and  each  one  should  be  placed 
in  the  wagon  or  on  the  shelf  separately ;  if  handled  roughly 
they  will  not  keep.  They  should  be  carried  in  a  spring 
wagon  or  on  a  bed  of  hay  or  straw. 


SQUASH 


283 


Storing. — Winter  squash  keep  best  in  a  dry  atmos- 
phere and  at  a  cool  temperature.  They  will,  however, 
keep  well  in  a  warm  or  even  hot  cellar  or  room,  providing 
it  is  dry,  but  will  quickly  rot  in  a  moist  atmosphere.  They 
will  shrink  more  in  weight  in  a  warm  than  in  a  cool  place. 
They  should  be  laid  on  shelves  one  tier  deep,  and  never 
piled  up  if  it  is  desired  to  keep  them  long.  When  well 
hardened  without  exposure  to  frost  before  storing,  and 


l"g.   121.     Squashes  in   winter  storage. 

kept  dry,  many  of  the  winter  sorts  are  easily  kept  until 
March,  or  even  with  some  success  as  late  as  May. 

The  quality  of  squash  varies  somewhat  according  to 
the  land  on  which  it  is  grown.  Sandy  loam  is  generally 
believed  to  produce  the  best  flavored  dry-flesh  squash, 
but  the  quality  also  varies  according  to  the  season. 

Summer  Varieties  (Cucurbita  pepo). — Summer  Crook- 
neck  is  a  summer  sort,  generally  with  a  crooked  neck,  that 


284  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

is  highly  esteemed.  A  form  of  this  with  a  straight  neck 
is  also  grown. 

Bush  Scalloped. — Yellow  and  white  varieties  of  this 
for  summer  use  are  much  grown  by  market  gardeners, 
differing  from  each  other  only  in  color  of  the  skin.  They 
are  round-flat  and  have  a  scalloped  edge. 

Boston  Marrow. — Much  grown  for  marketing  and  very 
highly  esteemed  for  summer  and  fall  use. 

Orange  Marrow. — A  form  of  the  Boston  Marrow. 

Fall  and  Winter  Varieties  (Cucurbita  maxima). —  Hub- 
bard. — This  is  the  best  known  and  most  largely  grown  of 


Fig.  125.     Varieties  of  squashes;/,  Hubbard;  2,  Summer  Crookneck;  J,  Mar- 
row (variety);  4,  Scallop;  5,  Marrow  (var.);  6,  Golden  Marrow. 

the  winter  varieties.  It  varies  somewhat  in  form,  is 
generally  dark  green  in  color  and  sometimes  marked  with 
red.  When  well  grown  it  has  a  rough  shell  of  flinty  hard- 
ness and  thick,  heavy  flesh  that  cooks  dry.  The  quality 


PUMPKIN  285 

varies  much  according  to  the  quality  of  the  land  on  which 
it  is  grown,  sandy  loam  generally  producing  the  best. 

Marblehead  is  a  variety  that  resembles  the  Hubbard  in 
quality  of  flesh,  and  by  many  is  considered  superior.  It 
differs  from  the  Hubbard  in  form  and  color,  is  ashy  gray, 
and  the  flesh  is  much  thinner.  It  yields  less  in  weight 
but  generally  produces  more  squashes  per  acre. 

Essex  Hybrid. — Very  fine  grained,  rich,  sweet,  and  a 
good  keeper;  excellent  for  autumn  and  winter. 

Winter  Crookneck. — One  of  the  hardiest,  most  reliable, 
and  best-keeping  squashes,  but  in  quality  no  better  than 
some  of  the  pumpkins.  Very  little  in  demand  for  market- 
ing, but  popular  in  some  sections  for  home  use. 

PUMPKIN  (Cucurbita  pepo) 

Description. — Native  of  warm  climates.  An  annual. 
Under  the  name  of  pumpkin  are  grouped  a  number  of 
gourds,  greatly  varying  in  shape,  color,  size,  and  quality. 
Some  of  them  are  very  good 
for  cooking  purposes,  but 
they  are  not  generally  es- 
teemed for  table  use  by  those 
who  have  become  accustomed 
to  the  better  kinds  of  squash- 
es; some  of  them  are  great 

Fig.  126.     Cheese  pumpkin. 

yielders  and  are  used  for  feed- 
ing cattle.  They  may  be  grown  as  recommended  for  squash 
or,  as  is  most  commonly  practiced,  grown  with  corn, 
where  the  seed  is  planted  as  soon  as  warm  weather  is 
assured.  The  seed  varies  much  in  size.  For  remarks  on 
its  flowers  and  pollination  see  squash,  with  which  they 
are  nearly  identical. 


286 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Varieties. — The  variety  most  generally  grown  is 
known  as  Connecticut  Field,  which  is  of  large  size  and  is 
used  mainly  for  feeding  stock.  Sugar  and  Cheese  pump- 
kins are  varieties  much  grown  for  cooking  purposes. 

MUSKMELON  (Cucumis  melo) 

Description. — Native  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia.  An 
annual.  It  has  been  cultivated  from  a  very  remote  period  of 
antiquity.  It  resembles  the  cucumber  in  habit  of  growth, 
and,  like  it  and  the  squash,  the  different  sexes  of  flowers 


Fig.  127. 


Muskmelons;    /,    California    Citron;    2,  White   Japan;    3,  Miller's 
Cream;  4,  Extra  Early. 


are  separate  on  the  same  plant  and  in  nature  require 
the  agency  of  insects  to  pollinize  them;  however,  they 
may  be  pollinized  by  hand,  and  the  directions  for  pollinizing 
cucumber  flowers  apply  here.  In  quite  a  few  cases  the 
flowers  of  the  muskmelon  are  perfect,  that  is,  have  both 
stamens  and  pistils;  but  it  is  likely  that  even  in  these  cases 
cross-fertilization  is  necessary.  The  seed  resembles  cucum- 
ber seed  in  size  and  form.  The  fruit  varies  in  shape  but 
is  commonly  round  or  oval.  The  flesh  varies  in  color  from 
nearly  white  to  deep  orange. 


MUSKMELON  287 

Muskmelon  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  and  de- 
licious of  fruits,  and  our  warm,  bright  summers  are 
especially  favorable  to  its  growth.  As  far  north  as  Minne- 
apolis, this  fruit  is  often  so  plentiful  as  to  glut  the  markets 
in  September.  It  is  grown  in  large  quantities  in  Colorado, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Georgia,  Texas,  and  New  Jersey  and 
shipped  to  Northern  markets. 

Culture. — The  culture  of  muskmelons  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  recommended  for  cucumbers,  and  the 
insect  pests  are  also  the  same.  A  warm  soil  is,  if  anything, 
more  desirable  for  this  crop  than  for  cucumbers,  and  in 
moist  seasons  it  does  especially  well  on  very  sandy  land, 
providing  it  has  been  well  manured. 

In  common  with  other  vegetables  it  is  important  that 
only  good  seed  be  used  for  growing  muskmelons.  Large 
amounts  are  raised  in  Colorado,  New  Jersey,  and  Cali- 
fornia. Some  of  the  Southern  growers  make  it  a  practice 
to  send  to  Colorado  every  year  for  special  varieties,  such 
as  Rocky  ford.  They  find  they  have  better  results  than 
when  growing  it  on  their  own  places. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  vines, 
after  they  have  grown  several  feet,  for  the  purpose  of 
forcing  out  the  laterals  on  which  the  fruit  is  borne,  although 
this  is  not  customary  in  growing  them  on  a  large  scale. 
Late  settings  of  fruit  may  be  removed  to  advantage  in 
September,  as  they  then  have  not  time  to  mature. 

Harvesting. — The  fruit  is  not  ripe  until  the  stem  sepa- 
rates easily  from  it.  Fruit  ripened  on  the  vine  is  of  the 
best  quality,  but  for  shipping  purposes  it  should  be  picked 
when  still  green.  Almost  without  exception,  melons  with 
finely  netted  skins  are  of  better  quality  than  those  with 
smooth  or  coarsely  netted  skins.  So  true  is  this  that 
buyers  often  refuse  to  buy  the  smooth  kinds.  In  order 


288  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

to  make  the  fruit  ripen  earlier  and  to  avoid  the  attacks 
of  the  striped  beetle,  the  plants  are  often  started  in  pots 
and  on  sods  in  hotbeds  or  frames,  as  recommended  for 
cucumbers.  It  is  a  good  plan  also  to  place  a  piece  of  glass 
or  board  under  the  melons  when  those  of  the  best  quality 
are  desired,  since  this  keeps  them  off  the  ground,  and  they 
ripen  more  evenly  in  consequence. 

Yields. — Yields  vary  in  different  sections  of  the  country; 
from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  crates  of  forty-five 
melons  each  is  probably  a  good  average  yield. 

Varieties. — Melons  vary  much  in  size,  form,  color  of 
skin  and  flesh,  and  in  quality.  The  New  Hampshire  exper- 
iment station,*  has  made  some  eight  groups  of  American 
muskmelons.  Among  the  more  important  melons  of  these 
groups  are: — 

Rocky  ford,  a  melon  having  light-green  flesh  of  smooth 
texture,  grown  in  all  melon  sections,  and  an  excellent 
variety  for  home  and  market  use. 

Montreal,  or  Montreal  Beauty,  is  grown  in  Canada  for 
market  and  occasionally  in  home  use.  Fruits  are  large 
and  of  fine  quality. 

Osage  or  Miller's  Cream. — A  large  melon  having  firm 
salmon-colored  flesh,  is  very  productive,  and  highly  esteem- 
ed for  the  market  and  home  garden.  It  is  perhaps  the 
best  shipping  sort  now  grown. 

Emerald  Gem  is  a  very  prolific  melon,  with  small  but 
very  superior  fruit  that  is  valuable  for  home  use ;  green 
fleshed. 

WATERMELON  (Citrullis  vulgaris) 

Description. — Native  .of  Africa.  An  annual.  A  vine 
of  the  same  general  habit  as  the  muskmelon,  but  the 
leaves  are  deeply  lobed,  and  the  whole  plant  is  covered 

Technical  Bulletin  No.  2. 


WATERMELON 


289 


with  soft,  grayish  hairs  that  give  it  a  grayish  aspect.  The 
flowers  are  the  same  in  general  structure  as  those  of  the 
cucumber  or  muskmelon.  The  seeds  are  large  but  vary 
much  in  size,  color  and  markings.  The  fruit  varies  in 
color  of  skin  from  pale  yellow  to  deep  green  and  is  often 
mottled;  the  flesh  varies  from  white  to  pink  or  yellow. 
Some  are  tasteless  and  insipid  and  others  are  sugary  and 


Fig.  128.     Varietiea   of    watermelons;    /,    Iron    Clad;    2,  Cuban  Queen; 
3,  Light  Ice  Rind;  4,  Monte  Cristo;  5,  Dark  Ice  Rind. 

refreshing.  The  fruit  often  weighs  as  much  as  fifty  pounds, 
in  good  seasons  when  grown  in  favorable  locations,  even 
in  the  extreme  Northern  states. 

Culture. — The  method  of  culture  is  the  same  as  for 
the  cucumber  and  muskmelon,  with  the  exception  that  the 
vines  should  not  be  pinched,  and  they  require  rather  more 


290  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

room  in  which  to  grow.  They  should  be  planted  about 
eight  feet  apart  each  way. 

Harvesting. — Watermelons  must  be  harvested  at  the 
right  time,  if  they  are  to  be  shipped  to  market.  Large  quan- 
tities are  grown  in  the  Southern  states  for  shipping  north. 
Indiana  Bulletin  No.  123  shows  the  number  of  melons  of 
any  given  size  that  can  be  loaded  on  a  car. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  kinds  of  watermelons  offered 
by  seedsmen,  differing  from  one  another  in  many  partic- 
ulars. Several  of  the  most  esteemed  are  the  following: 

Dark  and  Light  Icing,  or  Ice  Rind. — The  best  two 
varieties  for  general  use.  Well  adapted  for  home  use  or 
marketing. 

Cole,  is  a  small  early-ripening  melon  grown  in  the 
North.  Kleckly  Sweet  is  a  melon  of  good  quality  and 
largely  grown. 

Citron,  or  Preserving  Melon. — This  resembles  water- 
melon, but  the  flesh  is  hard  and  fit  only  for  preserves. 
There  is  but  a  limited  demand  for  it. 

CUCUMBER  (Cucumis  sativus) 

Description. — Native  of  the  East  Indies.  Annual. 
A  creeping  plant  with  angular,  flexible  stems,  rough  to 
touch  and  furnished  with  tendrils.  The  flowers  are  yellow, 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  some  male,  others  female;  the 
latter  flowers  are  on  the  ovary,  which  later  becomes  the 
cucumber.  The  plants  produce  flowers  and  fruit  in  suc- 
cession over  a  long  season,  and  these  are  naturally  pollin- 
ized  by  insects.  The  seed  is  long-oval  in  form  and  yellow- 
ish-white in  color.  There  are  two  types  of  fruit,  the  long 
or  English  variety  used  in  greenhouses,  and  the  short  or 
White  Spine  type  used  both  indoors  and  outside. 


CUCUMBER  291 

Cultivation. — The  soil  for  cucumbers  should  be  a  deep, 
rich,  somewhat  retentive  loam ;  and  yet  this  vegetable  will  do 
very  well  with  only  moderately  favorable  conditions.  For 
ordinary  use  and  for  the  home  garden,  cucumber  seed 
should  be  planted  after  the  ground  is  warm,  say  from  the 
middle  to  the  last  of  May,  but  it  may  be  planted  with  good 
results  as  late  as  the  middle  of  June. 

It  is  quite  customary  to  furrow  out  the  land  six  feet 
apart  one  way,  mark  crossways  of  the  furrows  with  a  six 
foot  marker,  and  put  a  shovelful  of  well-rotted  manure  or 


Fig.  129.     Chicago  pickling  cucumber. 

compost  in  each  intersection.  Cover  this  manure  with 
soil  and  plant  the  cucumber  seed.  Of  course,  when  the 
land  is  in  the  best  condition,  it  is  not  necessary  to  put 
manure  in  the  hills;  in  such  cases,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
mark  out  both  ways  and  plant  at  the  intersections.  About 
ten  or  a  dozen  seeds  should  be  put  in  each  hill  and  covered 
about  one  inch  deep,  and  the  soil  packed  over  the  seeds. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up,  and  after  each  rain,  they 
should  have  the  soil  loosened  around  them.  They  should 
also  be  kept  dusted,  until  well  established,  with  Paris  green, 


292  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

land  plaster,  or  some  other  dust,  to  keep  off  the  striped 
beetles,  which  are  often  very  troublesome  and  may  destroy 
the  plants  when  they  are  small  unless  preventive  measures 
are  used.  (See  chapter  on  insects.)  The  land  should  be 
cultivated  both  ways  until  the  vines  prevent  it,  so  that  very 
little  work  will  have  to  be  done  by  hand.  About  three  good 
plants  are  enough  for  each  hill,  and  the  rest  should  be 
removed  after  the  danger  from  serious  insect  injuries  has 
passed. 

Gathering  the  Crop. — If  for  table  use  or  for  marketing 
in  a  green  state,  the  cucumbers  are  gathered  when  full 
grown  but  still  green;  if  for  pickles,  the  cucumbers  are 
gathered  as  soon  as  of  the  required  size,  which  is  generally 
when  they  are  about  three  inches  long.  Some  factories  put 
up  larger  and  some  smaller  pickles  than  this  size.  To 
gather  them  of  just  the  right  size  requires  that  the  whole 
bed  be  picked  over  about  once  in  two  days.  This  is  a  mat- 
ter of  much  labor  and  is  generally  paid  for  by  the  piece. 

No  cucumbers  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  if  pickles 
or  table  cucumbers  are  wanted,  for  as  soon  asseedis  ripened 
the  plants  commence  to  die  off ;  while  if  constantly  gathered 
when  green  and  not  allowed  to  ripen,  the  plants  will  con- 
tinue bearing  a  long  time.  In  the  vicinity  of  pickling  fac- 
tories, cucumbers  for  pickles  are  often  raised  in  large 
quantities  as  a  farm  crop  and  are  contracted  for  at  a  speci- 
fied price  per  thousand  or  per  hundred  pounds,  for  the 
season. 

For  home  use  or  for  storing  and  marketing  in  the  winter, 
the  cucumbers  are  packed  in  salt  or  salt  brine  when  gath- 
ered. Growers  generally  use  about  seven  pounds  of  salt  to 
a  bushel  of  cucumbers.  They  may  also  be  packed  in  dry 
salt  in  layers,  which  has  the  effect  of  taking  the  water  out  of 
the  cucumbers,  causing  them  to  shrivel  up  and  lie  in  their 


CUCUMBER  293 

own  juice.  When  wanted  for  use  they  are  freshened  out 
in  water,  which  causes  those  that  are  shriveled  to  swell  up 
plump;  they  are  then  put  in  vinegar.  Cucumber  pickles 
are  easily  kept  until  the  following  spring  in  this  way,  but 
when  kept  later  than  spring  they  get  soft  and  are  not  so 
desirable.  Cucumbers  will  stand  a  great  amount  of  dry 
weather  without  injury,  if  frequently  cultivated. 

Starting  cucumbers  in  cold  frames  and  hotbeds  and  then 
transplanting  them  to  the  open  ground  when  all  danger  of 
frost  is  over  is  a  common  practice  where  they  are  wanted 
for  early  use.  Under  this  system  the  seed  is  sown  in 
old  strawberry  boxes,  tomato  cans,  flower  pots,  etc.  Square 
pieces  of  inverted  sod  are  also  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
four  or  five  seeds  being  sown  on  each  piece  five  inches 
square  and  covered  with  good  soil.  The  plants  in  this  latter 
case  root  into  the  sod  and  are  easily  moved. 

Starting  cucumbers  this  way  has  the  merit  of  advancing 
the  period  of  maturity  of  the  plants,  and  as  they  are  well 
started  when  set  out  there  is  little  danger  of  attacks  of  the 
striped  beetle,  and  the  fruit  is  earlier  than  when  sown  in  the 
open  ground.  In  following  out  this  plan,  the  seed  should  not 
be  sown  before  the  first  of  May,  or  the  plants  will  be  too 
large  to  move  well.  Before  the  plants  are  removed  from 
the  frames  to  the  open  ground,  they  should  be  exposed 
without  the  sash  for  several  days  until  well  hardened  off. 
When  these  plants  are  moved  to  the  open  ground,  they 
should  be  set  rather  deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  frames. 
They  then  are  cultivated  the  same  as  plants  from  seed 
sown  in  the  hill. 

Another  way  for  advancing  the  cucumber  season  when 
hotbed  sash  is  used,  is  by  planting  a  hill  of  them  very  early 
in  the  center  of  each  sash  of  the  hotbed,  using  the 
rest  of  each  sash  for  an  early  vegetable  crop.  The  cucum- 


294  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

bers  will  not  need  much  room  for  several  weeks,  which  will 
give  time  to  grow  the  early  crop  and  get  it  out  of  the  way 
of  the  cucumbers.  The  sashes  should  be  removed  when 
warm  weather  comes,  and  the  vines  allowed  to  grow  in 
the  frames  all  summer. 

Yields. — Cucumbers  yield  from  one  hundred  to  four 
hundred  or  more  bushels  per  acre,  depending  on  care,  soil, 
etc.  They  are  sold  by  the  dozen,  the  bushel,  or  by  weight, 
bringing  from  twenty-five  cents  apiece  to  twenty-five  or 
fifty  cents  per  bushel,  depending  on  the  supply.  A  good 
field  ought  to  return  from  $200  to  $300  an  acre  for  slicing 
cucumbers.  Yields  of  picklers  vary  from  three  to  nine  tons 
per  acre,  and  bring  from  $12  to  $15  per  ton. 

Insects. — The  cucumber  has  a  serious  enemy  in  the 
striped  beetle  and  is  also  liable  to  injury  from  the  cut- worm. 
(For  remedies  see  chapter  on  insects.) 

Seed. — Cucumber  seed  is  easily  raised,  and  in  some 
localities  it  is  a  product  of  some  importance.  In  raising 
seed  it  is  important  to  save  it  from  the  early  fruit,  which  in 
a  small  way  is  easily  saved ;  on  a  large  scale,  however,  the 
fruits  are  allowed  to  ripen  but  not  to  rot  on  the  ground. 
When  the  vines  are  dead,  the  ripe  cucumbers  are  split  open, 
the  pulp  scooped  out  with  the  seed  and  allowed  to  ferment 
for  a  few  days,  when  it  readily  separates  from  the  seed. 
The  whole  mass  is  then  thrown  into  a  sieve  with  a  mesh 
small  enough  to  retain  the  seeds  as  the  pulp  is  washed 
through,  leaving  the  clean  seed,  which  is  carefully  dried. 
If  the  cucumbers  are  allowed  to  get  rotten  before  the  seed 
is  taken  out,  the  skins  will  become  mixed  with  the  seed, 
and  the  seed  will  be  discolored,  and  such  seed  is  very 
liable  to  sprout  in  the  cleaning  and  curing  process. 

Varieties. — For  general  home  use  and  marketing,  the 
White  Spine  is  a  favorite  variety.  For  pickles,  the  most 


LETTUCE  295 

profitable  kinds  are  those  producing  many  small  cucumbers, 
such  as  the  variety  known  as  the  Boston  Pickling.  There 
are  many  good  varieties  of  cucumbers  and  they  are  offered 
under  various  names.  For  earliest  use  the  Early  Russian  is 
perhaps  the  best,  but  it  is  small  and  seedy. 

THE  SUNFLOWER  FAMILY  (Order  Compositae) 

The  Sunflower  Family  is  the  largest  group  of  flowering 
plants,  yet  it  has  given  us  only  a  very  few  garden  vege- 
tables and  those  are  of  little  importance.  Its  plants  are 
distinguished  by  what  the  older  botanists  termed  the  "com- 
pound flower."  This  consists  of  several  or  many  flowers  in 
a  head,  surrounded  by  a  set  of  bracts.  Stamens  are  as 
many  as  the  lobes  of  the  corolla  (generally  five),  their  an- 
thers grown  together  by  their  edges.  The  ovary  is  one- 
celled,  inferior,  containing  a  single  seed.  Besides  the  arti- 
choke, lettuce,  salsify,  endive,  and  dandelion,  whose  cultural 
directions  are  here  given,  there  occur  here  the  tansy,  sun- 
flower, daisies,  corn-flower,  Ageratum,  Cineraria,  chicory, 
burdock,  thistle,  wild  lettuce,  compass  plant,  ragweed,  fire- 
weed,  chrysanthemum,  marigold,  goldenrod,  aster,  yarrow, 
zinnia,  dahlia,  and  many  other  well-known  plants. 

LETTUCE  (Lactuca  saliva] 

Description. — Native  of  India  or  Central  Asia.  An 
annual.  Flowers  are  yellow,  on  seed  stalks  two  or  more 
feet  high;  seeds  small,  flat,  white  or  black,  but  sometimes 
yellow  or  reddish-brown  in  color.  The  shape  and  size  of 
the  leaves  also  vary  greatly:  sometimes  they  form  a  head 
like  the  cabbage,  and  again  only  a  loose  bunch.  The 
foliage  is  generally  of  some  shade  of  green,  but  some  varie- 
ties have  leaves  of  a  reddish  color. 


296 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Cultivation. — Lettuce  is  largely  grown  in  greenhouses 
during  the  winter,  in  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  in  the  early 
spring,  and  outdoors  in  the  late  spring  and  until  severe 
weather  in  autumn.  It  is  a  very  important  crop  for  the 
market  gardener,  as  there  is  some  demand  for  it  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year  and  a  large  call  for  it  in  the  spring.  Some 
growers  making  a  specialty  of  this  crop  have  it  in  market- 
able condition  every  month  of  the  year.  In  some  sections, 
the  plants  may  be  started  in  September  and  when  of  good 


Kg.  130.    Black-seeded  Simpson  lettuce.   (A  typical  curly  sort.) 

size  transplanted  to  a  cold  frame,  where  they  may  be  safely 
wintered  over.  In  the  spring  they  are  planted  in  hotbeds 
and  in  the  open  ground.  In  the  extreme  Northern  states, 
however,  although  plants  frequently  come  through  the 
winter  safely  when  thus  protected,  it  is  not  a  method  to  be 
depended  upon.  It  is  customary  here  to  raise  the  plants 
for  spring  planting  in  greenhouses  or  early  hotbeds. 

Lettuce  may  be  transplanted  to  the  open  ground  as  soon 
as  the  soil  will  work  easily  in  the  spring,  but  it  should  be 


LETTUCE  297 

well  hardened  off  before  being  planted  out;  it  will,  however, 
stand  quite  a  severe  freeze  if  properly  hardened  off,  and,  as 
is  the  case  with  many  other  crops,  the  plants  may  be  pro- 
tected with  earth  on  the  approach  of  hard  frost,  providing 
it  does  not  remain  over  them  more  than  a  day  or  two. 
In  the  open  ground,  lettuce  plants  should  be  set  out  about 
t'.relve  inches  apart  each  way.  It  is  frequently  grown 
between  rows  of  early  cabbage,  cauliflower,  or  other  plants 
where  it  fills  up  otherwise  unoccupied  space  and  comes  off 
the  land  long  before  other  crops  need  the  room  it  occupies. 
For  late  use  the  seed  is  often  sown  in  the  open  ground  in 
drills  one  foot  apart  and  the  plants  thinned  to  the  same 
distance  apart.  It  is  customary  also  in  the  home  garden 
to  sow  the  seed  and  then  cut  off  the  young  plants  as  soon 
as  they  are  large  enough  to  use;  such  lettuce,  however,  is 
not  nearly  so  good  -as  head  lettuce,  where  the  center  is 
white,  crisp,  and  tender.  It  is  a  far  better  plan  to  thin 
out  the  young  plants  so  that  they  stand  three  or  four 
inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and,  in  cutting,  continue  the 
thinning  process  so  that  the  later  plants  will  form  good 
heads.  Of  course,  it  is  necessary  to  make  successive  sow- 
ings of  lettuce  in  order  to  have  it  fit  for  table  use  over  a 
long  season.  Like  all  leaf  crops,  lettuce  needs  plenty  of 
rich,  easily  available  nitrogenous  manure,  and  responds 
very  quickly  to  small  applications  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Seed. — Most  of  the  seed  of  lettuce  used  in  this  country 
comes  from  California.  Several  hundred  acres  are  grown 
there  for  seed.  It  is  said  thirty  to  sixty  plants  will  produce 
a  pound  of  seed.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
purchase  or  growing  of  lettuce  seed  if  large  quantities  of 
lettuce  are  to  be  grown. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties,  and  each  year 
finds  many  additions  to  the  list  of  those  offered  by  seeds- 


298 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


men.  In  the  matter  of  quality,  those  forming  a  head  like  the 
cabbage  have  the  preference.  Varieties  that  form  only  a 
bunch  of  leaves  are  largely  raised  by  market  gardeners  to 
supply  the  common  demand,  since  they  are  more  easily 
grown  and  are  less  liable  to  injury  in  handling  than  -the 
heading  varieties.  Some  of  the  most  desirable  kinds  are 
as  follows: — 

White  Tennis  Ball,  or  Boston  Market. — A  very  popular 
market  variety  adapted  for  hotbed   and  early  spring  use 


Fig.  131.     Head  lettuce. 

only.  It  forms  a  solid  head  of  medium  size  but  quickly 
goes  to  seed  in  warm  weather. 

Hanson. — Forms  large  solid  heads  and  is  a  general 
favorite;  excellent  for  spring  or  summer  use. 

Black-Seeded  Simpson. — A  popular  forcing  variety 
that  stands  well  without  going  to  seed  and  does  not  form 
a  head  but  a  mass  of  curled  leaves. 

Grand  Rapids. — A  very  desirable  lettuce  for  forcing. 
It  resembles  Black-Seeded  Simpson,  but  is  a  better  shipping 
variety. 


SALSIFY  299 

Black-Seeded  Tennis  Ball. — A  popular  sort  for  forcing 
or  early  garden  culture.  It  forms  large,  solid  heads  and  is 
highly  esteemed. 

Salamander. — A  good   heading  sort  for  summer  use. 

Buttercup. — Bright  chrome  yellow  in  color,  very  beauti- 
ful ;  tender  and  desirable.  A  popular  new  sort. 

Insects  and  Diseases. — There  are  few  insects  or  diseases 
that  seriously  affect  the  lettuce  when  grown  outdoors. 
In  the  greenhouse  and  occasionally  in  the  hotbeds,  it  is 
sometimes  attacked  by  the  aphis  and  mildew.  For  reme- 
dies for  aphis,  see  chapter  on  insects. 

Mildew  frequently  injures  the  lettuce  crop  when  it  is 
grown  in  greenhouses  in  winter.  It  is  most  liable  to  be 
caused  by  over-watering  and  especially  by  frequent  water- 
ing in  cold  or  cloudy  weather,  which  keeps  the  leaves  wet 
much  of  the  time.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  water  heavily  when 
the  crop  is  planted  and  to  avoid  repeating  it  until  the  soil 
is  quite  dry,  and  then  water  heavily  again  in  the  morning 
of  a  bright  day,  so  that  the  foliage  may  dry  off  before  night. 
Sub-irrigation  has  been  used  with  excellent  success  for 
this  crop  in  greenhouses  in  winter. 

SALSIFY,  OR  VEGETABLE  OYSTER  (Tragopogon  porrifolius) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  biennial.  A  plant 
with  long  fleshy  tap  root  and  grass-like  leaves.  The  flower 
stalks  grow  three  feet  high ;  the  seed  is  long,  ridged,  generally 
curved,  and  pointed  at  both  ends.  It  is  rather  difficult 
to  plant  with  a  seed  sower  because  of  its  peculiar  form,  but 
when  the  points  are  rubbed  off  it  is  often  so  planted. 

Culture. — The  cultural  directions  given  for  the  par- 
snip apply  to  this  plant.  It  is  very  easily  grown  and  is 
hardy,  and  generally  comes  through  the  winter  in  the 
extreme  Northern  states  without  injury;  it  is  safer,  however, 


300 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


to  dig  the  roots  in  autumn,  and  put  in  pits  until  spring  or 
for  use  during  winter.  The  root  is  highly  esteemed  and 
has  a  flavor  of  oysters;  it  is  used  for  soups,  but  may  be 
cooked  in  the  same  manner  as  parsnips. 


Fig.   132.     Salsify — a  single  plant  and  a  bunch  for  market. 

The  best  variety  is  the  Mammoth  Sandwich  Island, 
which  is  far  superior  to  any  other. 

ENDIVE  (Cichorium  endivia) 

Description. — Native  of  East  India.  An  annual.  En- 
dive resembles  the  dandelion  in  habit  and  growth.  It  is 
esteemed  by  some  as  a  desirable  fall  and  winter  salad, 
since  it  has  a  pleasant  bitter  taste  when  blanched. 

Culture. — It  is  of  very  simple  culture  and  may  be 
grown  in  much  the  same  manner  as  lettuce.  For  summer 
use,  sow  the  seed  early  in  the  spring;  for  autumn  and 
winter  use,  sow  in  July.  It  is  blanched  before  being  eaten. 
This  is  accomplished  by  tying  the  leaves  tightly  together 
when  the  plants  have  nearly  completed  their  growth. 


DANDELION  301 

After  this  treatment,  the  leaves  in  the  center  of  the  plant 

will  have  become  blanched  in 

about  three  weeks.     Do   not 

tie  the  plants  too  rapidly,  since 

the   hearts   are    liable  to   rot 

soon  after  blanching,  especially 

if  the  weather  is  warm.     On 

the  approach  of  severe  weather, 

the  plants  may  be  set  in  boxes 

in   a   cold   cellar,  where   they 

will  continue  to  produce  nice 

blanched     leaves     during   the 

early  part  of  the  winter. 

Varieties. — A  variety  known 
as  Green  Curled  endive    is    generally  grown,   but  other 
varieties  are  offered  by  seedsmen. 

DANDELION  (Taraxacum  officinale) 

Description. — Native  of  Europe.  A  perennial.  The 
dandelion  is  a  familiar  plant  to  almost  every  one.  It  is 
now  of  spontaneous  growth  here  and  is  used  for  greens  in  its 
wild  state,  but  the  cultivated  varieties  are  quite  an  improve- 
ment on  the  wild  plants. 

Culture. — The  best  method  of  growing  it  is  by  sow- 
ing the  seed  in  the  spring  in  drills  ten  inches  apart 
and  thinning  out  the  plants  to  three  inches  apart  in  rows. 
The  seed  is  somewhat  difficult  to  start,  and  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  go  over  each  row  twice  with  the  seed  sower,  so  as 
to  mix  the  seed  up  with  the  soil,  since  by  this  method  some 
of  it  will  be  sure  to  be  properly  covered.  It  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  fall,  but  not  generally  until  spring.  It  is 
often  forced  by  covering  the  bed  with  the  hotbed  sash  or 
by  transplanting  to  hotbeds  or  cold  frames. 


302  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Dandelion  is  sometimes 
blanched  and  used  as  a  salad, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  much  like 
endive.  While  the  plant  is  a 
perennial,  yet  only  one  crop 
should  be  harvested  from  each 
sowing,  since  after  the  first  cut- 
ting many  sprouts  are  produced 
from  each  root,  none  of  which 
are  large  enough  for  good  market 

Fig.  134.     Dandelion.  ^^        The    ^^    ^^     ^ 

ways  be  plowed  in  before  they  ripen  seed  unless  seed  is  to 
be  saved,  to  prevent  its  scattering  and  becoming  a 
nuisance.  A  variety  called  the  Improved  Thick-Leaved 
is  the  most  esteemed. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE  (Helianthus  tuberosus) 

Description. — Native  of  North  America.  A  perennial. 
Stems  herbaceous,  six  or  more  feet  high;  roots  tuberous. 
Flowers  are  yellow,  resembling  those  of  the  common  sun- 
flower, but  comparatively  small. 

Culture. — For  best  results  the  artichoke  requires  ex- 
ceedingly rich  soil.  It  can  be  grown  from  the  seed,  although 
this  is  seldom  attempted,  but  it  is  customary  to  grow  it 
by  planting  the  small  tubers  whole  or  cutting  the  large 
tubers  in  the  same  way  as  potatoes.  They  should  be 
planted  about  four  inches  deep  at  twelve-inch  intervals  in 
rows  three  feet  apart.  They  are  used  chiefly  for  feeding 
stock  and  are  often  harvested  by  turning  hogs  into  the 
field.  They  will  frequently  remain  in  the  land  many  years 
even  if  not  cultivated.  They  are  easily  injured  by  frost 
when  not  covered  with  earth,  but  in  the  ground  they  are 
perfectly  hardy. 


ARTICHOKE  303 

GLOBE  ARTICHOKE  (Cynara  scolymus) 

Description  and  Culture. — Native  of  Barbary  and 
South  Europe.  A  perennial.  This  is  a  large  thistle-like 
plant  growing  two  to  three  feet  high,  producing  large 
flower  heads,  the  scales  of  which  are  large  and  thick  and 
are  highly  esteemed  as  a  garden  vegetable  in  England 
and  southern  Europe.  It  has,  however,  never  become 
popular  in  this  country,  and  is  rarely  grown.  In  southern 
Europe  it  is  grown  by  divisions,  and  there  are  many  varieties. 
It  may  also  be  grown  from  seed,  but  seedlings  are  generally 
very  much  inferior  to  other  sorts.  The  roots  must  be 
very  carefully  protected  in  order  to  bring  them  through 
Northern  winters. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  How  may  vegetables  be  classified,  and  name  five  in  each 
class. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  frost- tender    vegetables?     Frost-hardy? 

3.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  mushrooms. 

4.  Of  what  country  is  corn  a  native?     Into  what  four  classes 
may  the  varieties  be  grouped? 

5.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  sweet  corn. 

6.  Name  five  varieties  each  of  early-and  late-maturing  sweet 
corn. 

7.  How  may  sweet  corn  be  cured  and  preserved? 

8.  What  is  corn  smut? 

9.  What  is  asparagus,  and  of  what  country  is  it  a  native? 

10.  How  is  asparagus  propagated  and  cultivated? 

11.  How  should  asparagus  be  cut  and  marketed? 

12.  When  and  how  should  the  asparagus  bed  be  manured? 

13.  How  may  asparagus  be  forced  for  early  market? 

14.  Of  what  country  are  onions  native?     How  are  they  propa- 
gated? 

15.  How  should  the  land  be  prepared  for  onion  raising? 

16.  Discuss  the  sowing  of  onion  seed. 

17.  How  should  onions  be  cultivated? 


304  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

18.  What  are  "scallious"  onion  sets? 

19.  What  are  the  methods  of  keeping  onions  over  winter? 

20.  What  are  the  advantages  of  planting  onion  sets?    . 

21.  How  are  they  cultivated  and  gathered? 

22.  Discuss  the  transplanting  of  onions. 

23.  Name  two  varieties  grown  from  seed,  two  for  sets,  two  for 
transplanting. 

24.  What  are  "shallots?"  "Egyptian  onions?"     "Top  onions?" 

25.  How  is  onion  seed  obtained? 

26.  What  are  leeks,  garlic,  chives,  and  how  are  they  cultivated 
and  propagated? 

27.  How  is  rhubarb  propagated? 

28.  What  cultivation  does  rhubarb  need? 

29.  What  is  the  method  used  for  forcing  rhubarb? 

30.  How  are  beets  propagated  and  cultivated? 

31.  Describe  a  beet  seed. 

32.  How  should  they  be  harvested  and  stored  over  winter? 

33.  How  does  scab  affect  beets,  and  what  precautions  should  be 
taken  against  it? 

34.  What  are  stock  beets?    Sugar  beets?    Leaf  beets? 

35.  What  is  spinach,  and  how  cultivated? 

36.  Of  what  countries  is  cabbage  native,  and  into  what  three 
groups  is  it  divided? 

37.  What  vegetables  have  sprung  from  the  original  species  of 
cabbage? 

38.  What  soil  is  best  for  growing  cabbages? 

39.  How  should  cabbage  crops  be  manured? 

40.  Discuss  cabbage  raising  for  early  crops. 

41.  How  are  the  plants  set  out  and  cultivated? 

42.  What  soil  is  best  for  late  cabbage  crops? 

43.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages   of  growing 
cabbages  for  late  crops? 

44.  When  are  cabbages  transplanted,  and  how  are  they  set  out? 

45.  How  are  cabbages  sown  in  the  hill  cultivated? 

46.  How  are  cabbages  harvested? 

47.  What  are  the  methods  of  storing  cabbage? 

48.  How  is  cabbage  seed  obtained? 

49.  Name  two  desirable  early  varieties  and  two  late  varieties. 

50.  What  diseases  and  insects  affect  cabbage? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  305 

51.  How  does  clubroot  affect  cabbages,  and  what  is  the  remedy 
for  it? 

52.  What  is  black  rot,  and  how  does  it  affect  cabbage  plants? 

53.  Give  five  means  of  preventing  it. 

54.  How  is  sauerkraut  made? 

55.  What  are  Brussels  sprouts? 

56.  What  is  cauliflower  and  how  is  it  cultivated? 

57.  What  is  kale  and  kohl-rabi  and  how  cultivated? 

58.  Of  what  countries  are  turnips  native? 

59.  When  and  in  what  kind  of  soil  should  turnip  seed  be  sown? 

60.  How  are  rutabagas  cultivated  and  stored? 

61.  How  is  horse-radish  propagated  and  cultivated? 

62.  Describe  water  cress  and  how  it  is  cultivated. 

63.  How  are  winter  radishes  grown  and  stored? 

64.  What  insects  affect  radishes,  and  what  are  remedies, 

65.  Name  five  good  varieties  of  radishes. 

66.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  clover  family,  and  what 
are  some  of  its  species? 

67.  Into  what  two  classes  are  beans  divided,  and  give  character- 
istics of  each? 

68.  How  are  bush  beans  cultivated? 

69.  How  are  beans  harvested? 

70.  Name  five  good  varieties  of  fall  beans. 

71.  How  are  pole  beans  cultivated? 

72.  What  is  the  result  of  transplanting  beans? 

73.  What  is  a  good  way  of  preserving  beans? 

74.  How  prevent  diseases  and  insects  from  injuring  beans? 

75.  Into  what  three  classes  are  peas  divided,  and  in  what  ways 
do  the  classes  differ? 

76.  How  are  peas  cultivated? 

77.  Name  five  good  varieties  of  peas. 

78.  What  is  okra,  and  how  is  it  cultivated? 

79.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  parsnip  family? 

80.  How  are  parsnips  cultivated? 

81.  How  are  parsnips  marketed? 

82.  What  is  parsley,  and  how  is  it  cultivated? 

83.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  carrots. 

84.  How  are  they  gathered  and  stored? 

85.  How  is  carrot  seed  gathered? 


306  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

86.  What  kind  of  soil  is  necessary  for  a  good  celery  crop? 

87.  How  should  celery  be  planted  to  obtain  an  early  crop? 

88.  How  should  celery  be  planted  to  obtain  a  late  crop? 

89.  How  is  celery  cultivated? 

90.  How  are  the  plants  transplanted? 

91.  How  are  celery  and  onions  planted  out  together? 

92.  What  is  meant  by  "handling"  celery? 

93.  What  is  the  process  of  blanching  or  banking? 

94.  How  is  celery  blanched  with  boards,  and  why  not  as  profit- 
able as  banking  with  soil? 

95.  What  is  a  convenient  way  of  planting  celery  for  easy  culti- 
vation and  weeding? 

96.  When  and  how  should  celery  be  dug? 

97.  Discuss  a  good  method  of  storing  celery. 

98.  How  long  does  it  take  celery  to  blanch  in  the  field  and  in 
the  cellar? 

99.  How  is  celery  seed  raised? 

100.  What  diseases  are  most  common  in  affecting  celery? 

101.  How  are  they  treated? 

102.  Name  five  good  varieties  of  celery. 

103.  What  is  celeriac,  and  how  is  it  cultivated? 

104.  To  what  family  does  the  sweet  potato  belong? 

105.  How  is  the  sweet  potato  cultivated? 

106.  What  plants  belong  to  the  potato  family  and  what  are  their 
general  characteristics? 

107.  What  colors  of  skin  and  flesh,  and  what  forms  do  we  find 
in  potatoes? 

108.  How  is  the  potato  propagated? 

109.  When  and  how  was  the  modern  potato  originated? 

110.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  potatoes? 

111.  How  should  such  land  be  manured? 

112.  What  are  "sets,"  and  what  are  the  qualities  of  a  good  "set"? 

113.  How  are  potatoes  planted,  and  what  kind  should  be  selected 
for  seed? 

114.  How  are  potatoes  treated  for  early  planting? 

115.  How  is  the  main  crop  of  potatoes  cultivated? 

116.  Discuss  the  digging  and  storing  of  potatoes. 

117.  What  is  the  average  per  acre  of  marketable  potatoes  in  the 
Northern  states?    What  are  the  biggest  yields  known? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  307 

118.  Name  five  good  varieties  of  potatoes. 

119.  Discuss  the  propagation  of  potatoes. 

120.  What  insects  and  diseases  are  injurious  to  the  potato? 

121.  How  and  when  does  scab  affect  potatoes? 

122.  What  is  the  best  treatment  for  early  potatoes? 

123.  How  does  potato  blight  affect  potatoes? 

124.  What  is  Bordeaux  mixture  and  how  is  it  applied? 

125.  What  is  internal  brown  rot? 

126.  How  are  eggplants  cultivated? 

127.  When  should  tomato  seed  be  sown  and  transplanted? 

128.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  tomato  growing? 

129.  How  should  tomato  plants  be  pruned  and  trained? 

130.  How  may  the  tomato  season  be  prolonged  after  frosts  come 
in  autumn? 

131.  How  should  tomatoes  be  selected  to  save  for  seed? 

132.  Name  five  good  varieties  of  tomatoes. 

133.  What  is  tomato  rot,  and  what  are  the  best  remedies  for  it? 

134.  What  are  ground  cherries,  and  how  cultivated? 

135.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  peppers,  and  for  what 
are  they  used? 

136.  What  is  martynia,  and  how  is  it  cultivated? 

137.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  gourd  family? 

138.  How  are  the  flowers  pollinized? 

139.  How  are  squashes  cultivated? 

140.  Discuss  the  harvesting  and  storing  of  squashes. 

141.  Name  three  good  summer  varieties  and  three  good  winter 
varieties  of  squash. 

142.  What  are  pumpkins? 

143.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  muskmelon,  and 
how  cultivated? 

144.  How  do  the  different  varieties  vary? 

145.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  muskmtlon  and  a  water- 
melon? 

146.  Name  three  good  varieties  of  watermelon. 

147.  Of  what  country  is  the  cucumber  a  native? 

148.  How  is  it  cultivated? 

149.  What  soil  is  best  for  raising  cucumbers? 

150.  How  should  they  be  gathered  when  to  be  used  for  pickles. 

151.  How  should  they  be  gathered  for  home  use? 


so: 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


152. 

153. 

154. 

155. 

156. 

157. 

158. 
family? 

159. 

160. 
summer. 

161. 
vented? 

162. 

163. 

164. 

165. 
it  used? 

166. 


How  may  they  be  stored  for  winter? 

How  are  cucumbers  and  melons  started  for  early  crops? 

How  are  cucumbers  cultivated? 

What  insects  injure  cucumbers  and  melons? 

How  are  cucumbers  gathered  for  seed? 

Name  one  good  variety  for  home  use  and  one  for  pickling. 

What  are  some  of  the  plants  that  belong  to  the  sunflower 

How  is  lettuce  cultivated? 

Name  three  good  varieties    for    spring    use    and    three    for 

How  does  mildew  affect  lettuce,  and  how  may  it  be  pre- 

What  is  salsify,  and  how  is  it  cultivated? 

How  is  endive  cultivated? 

How  are  dandelions  planted  and  cultivated? 

How  is  the  Jerusalem  artichoke  cultivated,  and  for  what  is 

What  is  the  globe  artichoke? 


CHAPTER  X 
GARDEN  HERBS 

Under  the  head  of  garden  herbs  are  grouped  a  .number 
of  sweet  culinary  and  medicinal  plants  that  are  cultivated 
to  some  extent  in  gardens.  They  are  generally  easily 
grown  in  mellow,  open  soil.  Those  having  foliage  that  is 
esteemed  for  its  aroma  should  generally  be  cut  on  a  dry 
day,  just  as  they  reach  full  flowering  stage,  and  should  be 
dried  quickly  in  the  shade.  As  a  rule,  herbs  should  be 
cut  before  being  frozen,  though  freezing  does  not  always 
injure  them.  When  dry  they  should  be  kept  in  dry,  air- 
tight boxes  or  vessels.  The  demand  is  very  limited  for 
most  of  them.  Only  a  few  of  the  most  common  kinds  are 
mentioned  here.  In  the  extreme  Northern  states,  many  of 
the  perennial  kinds  will  kill  out  in  severe  winters  unless 
protected. 

THE  MINT  FAMILY  (Order  Labiatae) 

The  Mint  Family  includes  little  other  than  herbs  (with 
few  exceptions)  which  have  aromatic  herbage,  square 
stems,  opposite,  simple  leaves,  2-lipped  corolla,  and  a 
deeply  4-parted  ovary,  which  separates  into  the  same 
number  of  seeds.  Besides  balm,  catnip,  lavender,  pepper- 
mint, sage,  sweet  basil,  sweet  marjoram,  spearmint,  summer 
savory,  thyme,  and  winter  savory,  whose  cultural  direc- 
tions are  here  given,  this  order  includes  garden  coleus, 
hyssop,  flowering  sage  or  salvia,  and  horse  mint.  The 
plants  of  this  group  are  mostly  grown  for  their  aromatic 
herbage. 


310 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


Balm  (Melissa  officinalis). — A  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe.  Perennial.  A  plant  growing  about  eighteen 
inches  high  having  aromatic  herbage.  The  seed  is  very 
small.  Sow  in  spring  where  the  plants  are  to  remain. 


12 


13 


Fig.  135.  Characteristic  portions  of  garden  herbs;  /,  catnip;  2,  balm; 
3,  wormwood;  4,  summer  savory;  5,  thyme;  6,  hoarhound;  7,  sage;  8,  saffron; 
9,  sweet  basil;  10,  sweet  marjoram  (American);  11,  rue;  12,  dill;  13,  sweet 
fennel. 

Catnip  (Nepeta  cataria). — Native  of  Europe.  Peren- 
nial. Often  a  common  weed  around  buildings  and  along 
roadsides  here.  It  is  used  in  a  small  way  for  seasoning. 
Easily  grown  from  seed  or  by  division. 


GARDEN  HERBS  311 

Lavender  (Lavendula  spied). — Native  of  southern 
Europe.  Perennial.  A  low  undershrub  grown  chiefly 
for  its  flowers,  which  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  per- 
fumery. Generally  increased  by  dividing  the  old  roots. 
It  delights  in  a  fine,  rich,  rather  calcareous  soil. 

Peppermint  (Mentha  piperita). — Native  of  northern 
Europe.  Perennial.  Propagated  by  division  of  the  stems; 
occasionally  a  roadside  weed  in  moist  places.  It  is  culti- 
vated in  the  same  way  as  spearmint.  Used  mostly  for 
its  essential  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  distillation.  The 
raising  of  this  plant  forms  a  considerable  industry  in  a  few 
locations  in  the  Northern  states. 

Sage  (Salvia  officinalis}. — Native  of  southern  Europe. 
Perennial.  Plants  forming  broad  tufts  about  sixteen 
inches  high;  flowers  in  heads  of 
three  or  four  in  terminal  clusters, 
usually  bluish  white  but  some- 
times white  or  pink.  The  seeds 
are  round  and  of  medium  size. 
Plants  come  readily  from  seed, 
which  should  be  sown  in  early 
spring.  It  is  customary  in  a  small 
way  to  sow  the  seed  outdoors  and 
allow  the  plants  to  remain  where 
they  grow  for  several  years.  Where 
it  is  grown  on  a  large  scale,  how- 
ever, the  plants  are  generally  put  Fig'  136'  A  branch  of  sage' 
out  as  a  second  crop,  following  early  peas  or  cabbage. 
There  is  some  uncertainty  about  its  coming  through 
very  severe  winters  in  the  Northern  states,  but  it  generally 
does  so  in  good  shape;  it  is  more  reliable  if  banked  with 
earth  or  covered  with  litter  in  winter.  Broad-leaved  sage 
is  an  improved  kind. 


312  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Sweet  Basil  (Ocymum  basilicum). — Native  of  India. 
Annual.  Stem  about  one  foot  high;  very  branching. 
The  leaves  and  other  green  parts  have  an  agreeable  aro- 
matic odor  and  are  used  in  seasoning.  Sow  indoors  in 
March  or  April  and  transplant  as  soon  as  the  weather  is 
settled.  It  may  also  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  early  in 
the  spring. 

Sweet  Marjoram  (Origanum  marjorana). — Native  of 
Asia.  A  perennial,  but  generally  grows  as  an  annual. 
The  leaves  and  other  green  parts  are  used  for  seasoning. 
The  seeds  are  very  small.  Sow  early  in  spring  in  any 
good  garden  soil. 

Mint  or  Spearmint  (Mentha  viridis). — Native  of  Europe. 
A  perennial.  A  plant  with  vigorous  creeping  root  stock, 
very  hardy,  and  sometimes  a  troublesome  weed  in  moist  soil. 
It  is  grown  by  planting  the  roots  in  the  spring.  There  is 
a  small  demand  for  this  plant  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer, 
which  is  met  by  a  greenhouse  supply.  The  leaves  and 
young  shoots  are  used  for  seasoning. 

Summer  Savory  (Satureia  hortensis). — Native  of  south- 
ern Europe.  An  annual.  A  small  plant  eight  or  ten  inches 
high.  The  seed,  which  is  very  small,  should  be  sown  the 
latter  part  of  April  or  in  May.  The  leaves  and  young  shoots 
are  used  for  flavoring. 

Thyme  (Thymus  vulgaris). — Native  of  southern  Europe. 
A  perennial.  A  small  plant  with  small  aromatic  leaves 
and  stems.  It  starts  easily  if  sown  in  early  spring.  It 
is  customary  to  sow  the  seed  where  the  plants  are  to  re- 
main but  it  may  be  transplanted.  It  is  in  demand  for 
flavoring  and  is  generally  hardy  at  the  north.  Broad- 
leaved  thyme  is  the  only  variety  worth  growing. 

Winter  Savory  (Satureia  montana). — Native  of  south- 
ern Europe.  Perennial.  Stems  woody,  at  least  near  the 


GARDEN  HERBS  313 

base;  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  high.  Used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  Summer  Savory.  Not  hardy  in  the  North 
unless  well  protected. 

PARSNIP  FAMILY  (Order  Umbelliferae) 
(For  characteristics  see  page  231.) 

Anise  (Pimpinella  anisum). — A  native  of  Asia  Minor. 
An  annual.  Attains  a  height  of  sixteen  inches.  The  seeds 
are  aromatic  and  are  used  in  medicine  and  in  confections. 
Sow  in  April  or  May  where  the  plants  are  to  remain  during 
the  season. 

Caraway  (Carum  carui). — Native  of  Europe.  A  bien- 
nial. Stem  straight,  two  or  three  feet  high.  The  seeds 
resemble  those  of  carrots  and  are  esteemed  for  flavoring. 
It  should  be  sown  in  May  in  drills  and  does  not  produce 
seed  until  the  following  season;  very  hardy  and  of  the 
easiest  culture. 

Coriander  (Coriandrum  sativum). — Native  of  southern 
Europe.  An  annual.  Two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  high. 
Stem  leaves  much  divided.  Grown  from  the  seed,  which 
should  be  sown  in  the  spring.  The  seed  is  used  for  flavor- 
ing purposes ;  the  foliage  exhales  a  very  rank  odor. 

Dill  (Anethum  graveolens). — Native  of  southern  Europe. 
An  annual.  Height,  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet.  It 
is  of  the  easiest  culture.  The  seed  is  much  used  as  flavor- 
ing for  pickles  of  various  kinds.  If  should  be  sown  in  the 
spring  in  rows  about  one  foot  apart  and  cultivated  the 
same  as  carrots.  Where  the  seed  ripens,  an  abundance 
of  plants  generally  springs  up  the  following  year.  Botani- 
cally  this  plant  is  probably  same  as  fennel,  but  the  latter  is 
more  in  use  in  the  green  stage  for  its  foliage. 


314  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

BORAGE  FAMILY  (Order  Boraginaceae) 

Borage  (Borage  officinalis). — Native  of  Europe  and 
North  Africa.  Annual.  Twelve  to  eighteen  inches  high. 
Used  in  the  manufacture  of  cordials.  Flowers  blue,  pretty. 
Of  the  easiest  culture,  growing  freely  from  spring  sown 
seeds. 

RUE  FAMILY  (Oder  Rutaceae) 

Common  Rue  (Ruta  graveoleus) . — A  bushy  herb,  woody 
or  almost  shrubby  at  its  base.  The  leaves  are  very  bitter 
and  sometimes  used  in  seasoning.  Grown  from  seed  or  by 
division  of  the  roots. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  soil  is  best  for  garden  herbs? 

2.  How  are  they  gathered  and  stored? 

3.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  mint  family? 

4.  What  is  balm?     Catnip?     Lavender?     Peppermint?     How  is 
each  propagated  and  cultivated? 

5.  What  is  sage,  and  how  is  it  grown,  harvested,  and  stored? 

6.  What  is  sweet  basil?     Sweet  marjoram?     Mint?     How  are 
they  cultivated? 

7.  What  is  summer  savory?     Thyme?     Winter  savory? 

8.  What    is    anise?     Caraway?     Coriander?     Dill?     How    are 
they  cultivated? 

9.  What  is  borage  and  common  rue,  and  for  what  are  they  used? 


CHAPTER  XI 
VEGETABLES  FOR  EXHIBITION 

Governing  Points  of  an  Exhibit. — A  few  years  ago 
exhibitors  of  vegetables  used  to  vie  with  one  another  to 
see  who  could  show  the  largest  potatoes,  beets,  or  carrots. 
About  nine  times  out  of  ten  the  largest  specimens  won 
the  prizes,  regardless  of  their  value  on  the  market.  This 
order  has  been  changed  now  in  the  exhibiting  and  judging 
of  all  vegetables.  The  points  that  govern  now  are, 
general  appearance,  market  condition,  uniformity,  and 
trueness  to  type.  The  market  condition,  as  regards  size, 
color,  shape,  and  quality,  is  perhaps  the  most  important. 

Attractive  exhibits  may  be  made  of  vegetables,  either 
alone  or  with  fruits  and  flowers,  if  care  is  used  in  the  selec- 
tion and  preparation  of  the  different  kinds  for  the  purpose. 
Neat,  attractive  packages  should  be  used  in  exhibiting. 

Growing. — The  plant  that  is  expected  to  produce  the 
best  product  for  exhibition  must  be  grown  from  the  best 
seed  available,  have  the  best  kind  of  soil  and  environment 
adapted  to  its  growth,  aftd  be  given  the  best  attention  and 
cultivation.  Good  seed  is  very  important;  one  cannot 
hope  for  good  vegetables  if  poor  seed  is  used. 

Selection  and  Preparation  for  Exhibition. — In  general, 
all  vegetables  should  be  selected  as  near  to  type  as  possi- 
ble, and  neither  too  large  or  too  small.  The  whole  sample 
must  be  clean  and  uniform  in  every  way.  Do  not  wash 
vegetables.  Use  a  soft  brush  to  get  the  dirt  off,  being 
careful  not  to  bruise  or  blemish  the  skin  in  any  way.  When 
the  vegetable  is  perfectly  dry  it  should  be  wrapped  in 


316 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


soft  paper  (newspaper  will  do)  and  packed  carefully  in  a 
box  or  other  receptacle  to  carry  to  place  of  exhibition. 
Care  should  be  used  in  packing  and  in  transporting,  that 
no  injury  comes  to  the  vegetable  from  rough  handling. 


Fig.  137.     Industrial  exhibit  and  contest,   Nelson,   Minnesota. 

Amount  to  Exhibit. — The  amount  of  each  kind  to  show 
is  usually  specified  by  the  officers  of  the  exhibition.  Pota- 
toes usually  are  shown  in  peck,  half  bushel,  or  bushel  lots, 
carrots  and  other  roots  by  number — six  or  twelve — or  by  the 
peck.  The  amount  specified — no  more  or  no  less — is  usually 
followed  by  the  judge. 

Judging. — Judges  usually  follow  the  market  require- 
ments in  judging  vegetables,  unless  special  instructions 
are  given  by  the  management  of  the  exhibition.  It  is  thus 
important  that  a  judge  be  very  familiar  with  varieties  of 
vegetables  and  the  market  requirements.  There  are  no 
recognized  score  cards  for  the  different  classes  of  vegetables 
except  potatoes.  A  score  card  used  by  the  Weld  County, 


EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING  317 

Colorado,  Farmers'  Club  in  judging  potatoes  is  given  below. 
Suggestions  for  judging  a  few  other  vegetables  are  also 
given,  but  as  a  rule  a  judge  must  rely  on  his  knowledge  of 
the  vegetable  and  its  value. 

WELD  COUNTY  POTATO  SCORE  CARD 

Exhibits  are  disqualified:  (1)  If  they  have  very  deep 
eyes  or  are  irregular  in  shape.  (2)  If  they  show  a  mixture 
of  different  varieties  and  types.  (3)  If  over  15%  are 
scabby  or  wormy.  (4)  If  one-fourth  are  hollow. 

The  sample  must  be  true  to  type,  unless  an  improvement 
of  type  is  shown. 

No  red  potato  will  score  as  high  as  white. 

No  deep-eyed  or  long  potato  is  scored  as  high  on  shape 
as  if  round  and  smooth. 

I    Dealers'  Scale 

(Too  large 2  points  off 

Too  small 12  points  off 

Not  even 6  points  off 

Shape 10 

[Not  bright 10  points  off 

Appearance 60  <  Dirty 10  points  off 

[Scabby  or  wormy 40  points  off 

_     ..  -    f Unsound 5  points  off 

\Brittle  or  spongy 5  points  off 

//    Final  Purchasers'  Scale.     Knife  Examination 

Smoothness 5 

Pares  thin 10 

Flesh  white 5 

Sound,  not  hollow 5 

Cortical  layer  thick 10 

Centers  small,  not  watery 15 


318  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

III    Consumers'  Scale.     Table  Quality 

Quickness  of  cooking 5 

Potatoes  cook  alike 10 

Mealiness 20 

Whiteness 5 

Grain  (mashed) 5 

Flavor 5 

Onions. — Exhibit  usually  consists  of  one-half  peck  of 
red,  white,  or  yellow  varieties.  Colors  should  not  compete 
with  one  another.  The  Globe  varieties  are  the  best  and 
should  always  outrank  the  flat  sorts.  Evenness,  size,  ripe- 
ness, trueness  to  type,  and  color  are  the  points  considered. 

Carrots. — Exhibit  usually  consists  of  six  specimens  or 
else  a  peck.  They  are  classed  as  table  and  stock  carrots. 
Stock  varieties  are  the  kinds  generally  grown  to  feed 
stock,  and  should  not  compete  with  table  varieties.  Car- 
rots should  be  true  to  type  for  the  variety,  clean,  bright, 
tender,  uniform,  and  of  good  quality.  The  instructions 
here  apply  generally  to  the  root  crops. 

Cabbage. — Three  heads  are  usually  required.  They 
should  be  firm,  uniform,  heavy,  and  of  good  size. 

Beets. — Exhibit  consists  of  six  specimens  or  of  a  peck. 
They  must  be  in  good  condition  for  table  use,  medium 
sized,  round  or  globular,  tender,  uniform,  and  in  good 
condition. 

Squash. — Three  specimens  are  required.  They  must 
be  uniform,  firm,  and  true  to  type  and  variety.  Warty 
specimens  are  often  preferred  to  smooth  ones. 

Pumpkins. — Pumpkins  are  of  two  kinds,  field  and  pie. 
Three  specimens  of  either  are  required.  Field  pumpkins 
should  be  large,  uniform,  and  heavy.  P/5  pumpkins  must 
be  uniform  in  size,  color,  and  weight. 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  I — WEIGHT  OF  ONE  QUART  OF  SEEDS  AND  NUMBER  OF  SEEDS 
IN  ONE  OUNCE 


KIND  OF  SEED 

Weight  of  a 
quart  of 
seed  in 
ounces 

Number  of 
seeds  in 
one  ounce 

Asparagus  

32 

1,400 

Balm      .                         .... 

20 

56  600 

Basil 

20 

22  665 

Bean  

24  to  33 

200  to  225 

Beet     .  .    . 

10 

1  400 

Borecole,  or  Kale  .'  

25 

8  500 

Broccoli  

25 

10  525 

Cabbage 

25 

8  500 

Caraway  

15 

9  915 

Carrot   with  spines  . 

9 

19  835 

Carrot,  without  spines  

13 

26  915 

28 

3  400 

Cauliflower  

25 

10  525 

Celery             ... 

17 

70  835 

Chicory  

14 

19,830 

Cress   American   .... 

20 

16  915 

Cress,  common  garden  

28 

12,715 

Cress,  water. 

2QH 

113  335 

Cucumber,  common  

18 

1,103 

Cucumber,  prickly  fruited  gherkin  

20 

QU 

3,680 
84  000  to  42  500 

Dill  ...          

11 

25,500 

Eggplant 

18 

6  520 

Endive  

12 

18,000 

Kohl-rabi 

25 

8  500 

Leek  

20 

11,335 

Lettuce 

15M 

22,665 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn 

23 

113  to  140 

Marjoram,  sweet  

20 

113,355 

Marjoram,  winter 

24 

340  000 

Martynia  
Muskmelon     

\°3H 

565 
1,560 

Okra 

22 

425  to  510 

18 

7  080 

Pea   

25  to  28K 

56  to  142 

Pea,  gray  or  field 

21  to  28^ 

142  to  225 

6  605 

Pepper.  ... 

16 

4,205 

Pumpkin 

9 

85 

Radish  

25 

700  to  835 

Rampion 

28^ 

3,400 

Rhubarb 

3  to  4^i 

1  415 

WVt 

7  080 

Salsify. 

8 

2,835 

18 

42  500 

Savory,  winter. 

15 

70,835 

Spinach,  prickly-seeded 

13H 

2,550 

Spinach,  round-seeded  

14^ 

3,135 

Spinach,  New  Zealand   

8 

280  to  340 

Squash,  Hubbard 

14 

93 

Squash,  Bush  Scalloped  

15^ 

280 

Ground  cherry  ...                        

23 

28,335 

Thyme   .  . 

24 

170,000 

Tomato 

11 

8  500  to  11,335 

Turnip  

24 

12,715 

Watermelon  ....  

16^ 

113  to  150 

320 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


TABLE   II — LONGEVITY   OF    GARDEN    SEED    WHEN   PROPERLY  CURED   AND 

STORED 


KIND  OF  SEED 

Average 
Years 

KIND  OF  SEED 

Average 
Years 

Balm  

4 

Martynia 

1  or  2 

Basil  . 

g 

Muskmelon  

5 

Bean 

3 

4 

Beet 

6 

Okra 

5 

Borecole                .    .        

5 

Onion 

2 

Cabbage  

5 

Parsnip 

2 

Caraway  

3 

Parsley.  . 

3 

Carrot 

4  or  5 

3 

Catnip 

6 

4 

Cauliflower  .... 

5 

4  or  5 

Celery  

g 

Radish 

5 

Chicory  

8 

Rampion 

5 

Cress,  American  

3 

Rhubarb  

3 

Cress,   common   garden  

5 

Rosemary  

4 

Cress    water 

5 

Rue 

2 

Cucumber,  common..    .        .  . 

10 

Sage 

3 

Cucumber,  Prickly-fruited 

Salsify 

2 

Gherkin 

6 

Dandelion     

2 

Savory,  summer  or  winter  .... 

3 

Spinach,  all  kinds  

5 

Dill  

3 

Squash,  Hubbard  

6 

Eggplant  

6 

Squash   Bush  scalloped 

6 

10 

Ground  Cherry 

8 

Kohl-rabi 

5 

Thyme  .  .    .    . 

3 

Leek  

3 

Tomato 

4 

Lettuce,  common  

5 

Turnip 

5 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn 

2 

Watermelon  

6 

Marjoram,  Sweet.    . 

3 

Marjoram,  Winter  

5 

APPENDIX 


321 


TABLE  III.— AMOUNT  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  FOR  ONE  ACRE  OR  FOR 
A  CERTAIN  NUMBER  OF  HILLS  OR  FEET  OF  DRILL. 


Artichoke  (Jerusalem),  3  bushels  of  tubers  per  acre. 

Asparagus,  1  oz.  to  60  ft.  of  drill;  4  to  5  Ibs.  per  acre. 

Beans  (dwarf),  2  bu.  to  the  acre  in  drills;  1  pint  to  50  ft.  of  drill. 

"     (pole),    1  qt.  to  150  hills;  10  to  12  qts.  per  acre.    - 
Beets.   1  oz.  to  50  ft.  of  drill,  5  Ibs.  to  the  acre  in  drills. 

Cabbage,   1  oz.  to  1500  plants.   %  lb.  of  seed  in  beds  to  transplant  upon  an  acre. 
Carrot,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  of  drill,  3  to  4  Ibs.  per  acre  in  drills. 
Cauliflower,   1  oz.  for  about  1000  plants. 
Celery,  1  oz.  to  3000  plants;  %  lb.  to  the  acre. 
Corn  Salad  or  Fetticus,  1  oz.  to  20  square  ft. 
Corn — Sweet,  1  qt.  to  200  hills;  8  to  10  qts.  to  the  acre  in  hills. 
Cress,   1  oz.  to  16  square  ft. 

Cucumber,   1  oz.  to  50  hills;  2  Ibs.  to  the  acre  in  hills. 
Eggplant,   1  oz.  for  1000  plants. 

Kale  or  Sprouts,  1  oz.  to  150  feet  of  drill;  3  to  4  Ibs.  per  acre. 
Kohl-rabi,   1  oz.  to  3000  plants;  3  to  4  Ibs.  per  acre. 
Leek,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  of  drill. 

Lettuce,   1  oz.  to  150  ft.  of  drill,  or  for  1000  plants. 
Martynia,   1  oz.  to  100  hills. 
Melons  (Musk)   1  oz.  to  about  60  hills;  2  to  3  Ibs.  to  the  acre. 

"        (Water)  1  oz.  to  30  hills;  4  to  5  Ibs.  per  acre. 
Okra,  or  Gumbo,  1  oz.  to  100  hills;  20  Ibs.  to  the  acre. 
Onions,    1  oz.  to  100  ft.  of  drill;  4  to  5  Ibs.  to  the  acre. 
Parsley,   1  oz.  to  150  ft.  of  drill. 

Parsnip,  1  oz.  to  200  ft.  of  drill;  5  to  6  Ibs.  per  acre  in  drills. 
Peas,  1  qt.  to  100  ft.  of  drill;  2  bu.  to  an  acre  in  drills. 
Pepper,  1  oz.  to  1000  plants. 

Potatoes,  8  to  12  bu.  cut  tubers  to  the  acre,  according  to  method  of  planting. 
Pumpkins,   I  oz.  to  30  to  50  hills;  3  to  4  Ibs.  per  acre. 
Radishes,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  of  drill;  8  to  10  Ibs.  per  acre  in  drills. 
Sage,   1  oz.  to  100  ft.  of  drill;  8  to  10  Ibs.  per  acre. 
Salsify,   1  oz.  to  70  ft.  of  drill;  8  to  10  Ibs.  per  acre. 
Spinach,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  of  drill;  10  Ibs.  to  the  acre  in  drills. 
Squash  (Bush)   1  oz.  to  50  hills;  5  to  6  Ibs.  to  the  acre. 

"       (Marrow)   1  oz.  to  20  hills;  3  to  4  Ibs.  to  the  acre. 
Tomato,  1  oz.  to  1500  plants;    M  lb.  for  transplanting  to  an  acre. 
Turnip,  1  oz.  to  150  ft.  of  drill;  2  Ibs.  to  the  acre  in  drills. 


TABLE  IV.— AVERAGE  TIME   REQUIRED   FOR   GARDEN  SEEDS  TO 
GERMINATE  UNDER  GOOD  CONDITIONS. 


KIND  OF  SEED. 

No.  days. 

KIND  OF  SEED. 

No.  days. 

Bean 

5  to  10 

Lettuce 

6  to    8 

Beet  
Cabbage 

7  to  10 
5  to  10 

Onion  
Pea  

7  to  10 
6  to  10 

Carrot 

12  to  18 

Parsnip 

10  to  20 

Cauliflower  
Celery 

5  to  10 
10  to  20 

Pepper  
Radish 

9  to  14 
3  to    6 

Corn  

5  to    8 

Salsify  

7  to  12 

Cucumber 

6  to  10 

Tomato  

6  to  12 

Endive  

5  to  10 

Turnip  

4  to    8 

322 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


TABLE  V.— STANDARDS  OF  PURITY    AND  GERMINATION  OF 
AGRICULTURAL  SEEDS. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  adopted  the 
following  standards  as  the  basis  for  its  decisions  as  to  the  value  of 
seeds : — 

The  seeds  must  be  true  to  name,  and  practically  free  from  smut, 
bunt,  ergot,  insects  or  their  eggs  or  larvae,  and  the  seeds  of  dodder 
(Cuscuta  spp.)i  wild  mustard  (Brassica  spp.),  wild  flax  (Camelina  spp.), 
Russian  thistle  (Salsola  kali  tragus),  Canada  thistle  (Carduus  arvensis), 
cockle,  (Agrostemma  githago),  chess  (Bromus  secalinus),  quack  grass 
(Agropyron  repens),  penny  cress  (Thlaspi  arvense),  wild  oats  (Avena 
fatua),  and  the  bulblets  of  wild  onion  (Allium  vineale).  It  must  not 
contain  more  than  one  per  cent  of  other  weed  seeds,  and  should  come 
up  to  the  percentages  of  purity1  and  germination  given  in  the  following 
table :— 


KIND  OF  SEED. 

Purity. 

Germi- 
nation. 

KIND  OF  SEED. 

Purity. 

Germi' 
nation. 

Alfalfa     

per 
cent.* 

98 

per 
cent. 

85-90 

Melon,  water     .    . 

per 
cent. 

99 

per 
cent. 

85-90 

Asparagus  
Barley  
Beans 

99 
99 
99 

80-85 
90-95 
90-95 

Millet,  common  (Chae- 
tochloat  italica)  
Millet,    hog    (Panicum 

98 

85-90 

Beet  
Blue  grass,  Canadian   . 
Blue  grass   Kentucky. 

99 
90 
90 

140-150f 
45-50 
45-50 

miliaceum)         
Millet,  pearl            .... 
Oats 

99 
99 
99 

85-90 
85-90 
90-95 

Brome,  awnless  
Buckwheat  
Cabbage 

90 
99 
99 

75-80 
90-95 
90-95 

Okra  
Onion  
Parsley 

99 
99 
99 

80-85 
80-85 
70-75 

Carrot 

95 

80-85 

Parsnip  

95 

70-75 

99 

80-85 

Peas 

99 

90-95 

Celery  

98 
95 

60-65 
75-80 

Pumpkin  
Radish 

99 
99 

85-90 
90-95 

Clover,    crimson   

98 

85-90 

Rape     

99 

90-95 

Clover   red 

98 

85-90 

Rye  

99 

90-95 

95 

75-80 

Salsify 

98 

75-80 

Collard 

99 

90-95 

Sorghum  

98 

85-90 

Corn  field 

99 

90-95 

Spinach  

99 

80-85 

Corn,  sweet  

99 

85-90 

Squash  

99 

85-90 

Cotton 

99 

85-90 

Timothy  

98 

85-90 

99 

85-90 

Tomato         .    . 

98 

85-90 

Cucumber                  .  .  . 

99 

85-90 

Turnip  

99 

90-95 

99 

75-80 

Tobacco  ... 

98 

75-80 

Fescue,  meadow  
Lettuce 

95 
99 

85-90 
85-90 

Vetch,  hairy  
Vetch,  kidney  

98 
95 

70-75 
85-90 

98 

85-90 

Wheat         .    . 

99 

90-95 

Melon,  musk  

99 

85-90 

*Impurity  allowed  refers  to  inert  matter  and  one  per  cent  (only)  of  weed  seeds 

other  than  those  practically  prohibited,  as  above  noted. 
fEach  beet  fruit,  or  "ball."  is  likely  to  contain  from  2  to  7  seeds.     One  hundred 

balls  should  yield  150  sprouts. 

iThis  means  purity  of  grain,  not  purity  of  stock. 


APPENDIX 


323 


TABLE  VI.— QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  FOR  A  GIVEN  NUMBER 

OF  HILLS 


Corn qt.  to  200  hills 

Cucumbers oz.  to  125 

Muskmelon oz.  to    60 

Pole  beans,  Limas qt.  to  100 

Pole  beans,  Wax qt.  to  150 

Pumpkin oz.  to    50 

Squash oz.  to    50 

Watermelon oz.  to    30 

TABLE  VII.— QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  FOR  A  GIVEN 
LENGTH  OF  DRILL 

Asparagus oz.    50  feet  of  drill 

Beet oz.    50 

Beans,  Dwarf qt.  100 

Carrot oz.  100 

Endive oz.  100 

Okra oz.    40 

Onion oz.  100 

Onion  sets qt.    50 

Parsley oz.  125 

Parsnips oz.  200 

Peas qt.     75 

Radishes oz.  100 

Salsify : oz.    70 

Spinach 1  oz.  100 

Turnip 1  oz.  150 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR 

Under  this  head  some  of  the  principal  operations  of  the  year 
in  the  more  Northern  states  are  referred  to,  but  these  can  be  regarded 
only  as  suggestive,  since  individual  conditions  as  well  as  the  weather 
vary  from  year  to  year.  The  point  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  for  the  greatest  profit,  to  have  all 
garden  work  done  at  the  proper  time;  and  to  do  this  considerable 
planning  and  studying  will  be  necessary  in  laying  out  each  day's  work, 
as  well  as  the  work  of  the  season,  so  as  to  make  the  most  of  the  oppor- 
tunities offered  by  weather  and  season. 

January. — The  outdoor  work  is  generally  quite  at  a  standstill  this 
month,  except  that  manure  may  be  drawn  from  the  stable  to  the  fields 
needing  it,  where  it  may  be  piled  and  forked  over.  Plan  out  the  work 
of  the  season,  aiming  to  have  the  ground  and  the  time  of  your  help 
occupied  all  the  time.  In  doing  this  it  is  generally  best  to  plan  to  raise 
those  crops  that  will  not  require  a  large  amount  of  work  at  the  same 
season,  but  rather  those  that  will  give  a  succession  of  work.  Market 
any  celery,  squash,  or  other  vegetables  for  which  there  is  a  demand. 


324  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Send  for  seed  catalogues  of  leading  dealers.  Decide  what  you 
are  going  to  want.  Test  the  quality  of  the  seeds  you  have  on  hand 
and  get  your  new  stock  of  seed  early.  Test  the  seeds  received  for 
planting. 

February. — The  work  of  this  month  differs  but  little  from  that 
of  January,  but,  in  addition,  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  Dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  month  prepare  manure  for  early  hotbeds 
to  be  started  the  first  of  March.  Inspect  tools,  wagons,  harness, 
boxes,  and  crates  for  marketing  and  hotbed  sash,  and  get  them  into 
shape  for  the  busy  season.  In  the  greenhouse,  cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower plants  may  be  started;  and  as  soon  as  of  transplanting  size 
they  should  be  removed  to  cold  frames,  where  they  should  remain 
until  the  ground  is  ready  for  planting  out. 

March. — Make  up  hotbeds  and  sow  in  them  tomatoes,  peppers, 
cabbage,  lettuce,  radishes,  cress,  onions  for  transplanting,  carrots, 
beets,  celery,  etc.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  month  cold  frames  may 
be  used  for  the  hardy  vegetables. 

If  the  ground  is  fit  to  work,  onion  sets  may  be  planted  and  spinach, 
hardy  peas,  and  other  plants  which  are  generally  not  sown  until  April 
may  be  sown  at  this  time.  Harden  off  the  early  cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower plants. 

April. — The  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  should  be  in  constant  use. 
Plantations  of  asparagus  and  rhubarb  may  be  made  during  this  and 
the  following  month.  Plant  onion  sets. 

Sow  hardy  (smooth)  peas,  lettuce,  celery,  radishes,  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  turnips,  onions,  and  spinach,  and  plant  early  potatoes  as 
soon  as  the  land  is  fit  to  be  worked.  By  the  end  of  the  month,  wrinkled 
peas,  salsify,  and  parsnips  may  be  sown.  See  that  tomatoes  sown 
last  month  are  transplanted  into  beds  or  boxes  so  as  to  have  plenty 
of  room.  Transplant  cabbage  plants  for  the  early  crop,  putting  them 
in  deep  enough  to  completely  cover  the  stems. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  month,  all  the  early  planted  crops  may 
need  cultivating  and  some  of  them  thinning,  though  but  little  of  this 
is  generally  necessary  until  May.  Radishes,  lettuce,  spinach,  and 
onions  from  sets  and  from  seed  sown  in  hotbeds  in  March  should  be 
fit  to  eat  or  to  market 

Haul  out  manure  and  plow  land  for  planting  next  month.  Trans- 
plant onion  plants  from  the  hotbeds  to  open  ground. 


APPENDIX  325 

May  is  the  month  when  the  larger  part  of  the  vegetables  are 
planted. 

By  the  middle  of  the  month  it  is  often  safe  to  plant  the  more 
tender  vegetables,  such  as  cucumbers,  squash,  melons,  and  beans,  in 
the  open  ground,  although  nothing  is  gained  by  so  doing  if  the  ground 
is  cold,  when  it  would  be  better  to  wait  until  ten  days  later.  Corn 
is  frequently  planted  by  the  middle  of  the  month,  and  in  early  sea- 
sons it  is  a  good  plan  to  venture  a  little  of  some  very  early  kind  during 
the  first  week  of  May.  Plant  potatoes  for  general  crops. 

All  the  early-planted  crops  need  cultivating  frequently,  and  those 
in  drills  need  to  be  thinned. 

Plantings  for  succession  may  be  made  of  all  vegetable  seeds  and 
sets  put  in  last  month. 

Sow  cabbage  for  winter  use. 

Lettuce,  radishes,  beets,  spinach,  asparagus,  rhubarb,  and  bunch 
onions  should  now  be  large  enough  for  use. 

Harden  off  tomato  plants  and  set  them  out  the  first  part  of  next 
month. 

June. — Set  out  tomatoes,  celery  for  early  use,  peppers,  eggplant, 
late  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants,  and  sow  winter  beets. 

Plant  cucumbers  for  pickles  and  beans  for  main  crop.  Plant 
Lima  beans  the  early  part  of  the^month.  Market  the  same  vegetables 
as  last  month,  and  in  addition  early  peas  and,  perhaps,  early  cabbage. 

Weeding  commences  in  earnest  this  month  and  should  begin 
early,  since  if  neglected  it  may  be  cheaper  to  plow  up  the  whole  crop 
rather  than  weed  it  out. 

Keep  the  soil  well  stirred  with  the  cultivator. 

Sow  rutabaga  turnips. 

Stop  cutting  asparagus  by  the  twentieth  of  the  month.  Clean  up 
the  bed,  manure  and  plow  it. 

July. — Plant  celery  for  main  and  late  crop. 

Sow  string  beans,  winter  radish  and  rutabaga  turnips. 

Early  potatoes,  string  beans,  cabbage,  summer  squashes,  cucumbers, 
green  corn,  onions  from  sets,  and  cauliflowers  are  now  of  edible  size, 
in  addition  to  those  vegetables  nearing  maturity  last  month. 

Continued  cultivation  i?  necessary  to  protect  from  drought  arid 
to  keep  plants  growing. 

August. — Sow  string  beans  and  flat  early  turnips,  spinach  for 
spring  use,  winter  radishes,  and  early  peas. 


326  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

The  late  crops  are  now  maturing,  and  we  have  tomatoes,  squashes, 
the  better  kinds  of  sweet  corn,  and  eggplant,  onions  from  early-sown 
seed,  and  those  transplanted  are  now  dry  and  maiketable.  Lima 
beans  will  be  ready  for  use  the  latter  part  of  the  month. 

Keep  weeds  from  going  to  seed. 

Sow  lettuce  for  growing  in  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  for  Thanks- 
giving. 

September. — The  cool  nights  of  this  month  are  especially  favor- 
able to  such  crops  as  celery,  cabbage  and  cauliflower,  and  they  should 
be  carefully  cultivated. 

Melons,  winter  squash,  and  celery  are  now  marketable. 

Handle  celery;  i.  e.,  draw  earth  up  around  it. 

First  frosts  may  now  be  expected  by  the  fifteenth  of  the  month, 
and  the  half-ripened  tomatoes  should  be  picked  and  allowed  to  ripen 
in  some  shady  place.  Winter  squash  should  be  gathered  before  it 
is  at  all  injured  by  frost. 

Dig  potatoes. 

Transplant  lettuce  to  hotbeds  or  cold  frames.  Plant  out  hardy 
perennial  onions  for  bunching  in  the  early  spring. 

October. — Winter  celery  should  be  banked  up  to  protect  it  from 
severe  frosts,  and  on  severe  nights  it  should  be  covered  with  straw 
or  hay  for  protection.  It  should  all  be  stored  away  by  the  end  of 
the  month  unless  plenty  of  protection  is  provided  in  the  shape  of 
straw,  in  which  case  it  is  safe  to  leave  it  out  until  the  10th  of  November. 
Such  crops  will  not  stand  with  immunity  as  much  frost  in  the  Western 
states  as  in  the  Eastern  states.  Pull  and  store  cabbage,  dig  beets, 
carrots,  parsnips,  salsify,  and  potatoes  and  store  in  pits  or  put  at 
once  into  the  cellar.  Some  parsnips  and  salsify  may  be  left  on  high 
land  to  be  dug  in  the  spring.  Plant  out  rhubarb  roots. 

Attend  to  fall  plowing  and  leave  in  ridges  any  very  heavy  land 
that  i?  aeeded  for  early  spring  use. 

November. — In  the  more  Northern  states  this  month  generally , 
closes  up  the  work  of  the  season.     All  the  crops  should  be  gathered 
in  the  early  part  of  the  month. 

Clean  up  the  garden,  frames,  and  hotbeds  and  get  them  ready 
for  spring  work. 

The  lettuce  sown  in  August  and  transplanted  to  hotbeds  or  cold 
frames  should  be  fit  to  market  this  month. 


APPENDIX  327 

Market  all  the  vegetables  on  hand  that  will  bring  a  fair  price, 
unless  wanted  for  some  special  purpose  or  at  an  assured  price. 

Cover  winter  spinach  and  hardy  onion  sets  with  hay  as  soon  as 
the  ground  begins  to  freeze  hard  at  night,  to  prevent  freezing  and 
thawing. 

December. — Clean  up  the  garden  and  continue  the  marketing  of 
vegetables  if  it  is  not  already  attended  to. 

Carefully  study  the  season's  work,  note  the  profits  or  losses  on 
the  last  crop,  and  what  has  been  learned  that  will  be  useful  another 
year. 

At  odd  times  the  following  may  be  attended  to:  Gather  manure, 
make  crates  and  boxes  for  marketing  fruits,  vegetables,  and  plants, 
repair  tools,  wagons,  harnesses,  sashes,  hotbeds,  and  cold  frames. 
Clean  up! 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  IN  VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

WHERE  the  subject  of  vegetable  gardening  is  given  during  the 
spring  term  of  school  many  interesting  laboratory  exercises  may  be 
conducted  in  a  small  greenhouse  or  garden  plot.  This  adds  a  great 
deal  to  the  interest  of  the  students  and  makes  the  teaching  of  the  sub- 
ject much  more  effective.  A  very  few  exercises  are  suggested  below. 
Many  others  may  be  worked  out  from  the  text.  Where  commercial 
greenhouses  or  large  vegetable  farms  are  to  be  found  in  a  community, 
it  is  well  to  interest  the  class  in  their  methods.  Visits  should  be  made 
to  these  establishments  several  times  during  the  season  and  careful 
notes  taken  on  the  work  in  progress. 

1.  Make  a  plan  of  a  kitchen  garden,  locating  vegetables  as  to 
position,  distance,  etc. 

2.  Use  nitrate  of  soda  on  one  spinach  plot  and  not  on  another. 
Use  well-rotted  and  fresh  manures  on  plots. 

3.  Make  and  plant  hotbeds  and  cold  frames.     This  is  a  good 
problem  if  manual  training  is  given  in  the  school. 

4.  Sow  seed  of  various  vegetables,  to  learn  names,  varieties, 
and  habits. 

5.  Transplant  young  seedlings  of  lettuce,  cabbage,  celery,  etc., 
to  flats  and  to  open  ground. 

6.  Make  spraying  preparations,  and  apply  them,  if  possible. 

7.  Study  the  value  of  different  tools  in  cultivating. 

8.  Use  different  cultural  methods  where  possible. 

9.  Compare  hand  sowing  and  machine  sowing  of  like  seeds.  - 
10.     Make  germination  tests  of  a  number  of  common  seeds. 


32S  APPENDIX 

BOOKS  AND  BULLETINS  ON  GARDEN  SUBJECTS 

Asparagus. — Bulletins:  Farmers'  Bui.  61;  California  Buls.  165, 
172;  Maryland  Bui.  151;  Ottawa  Pamphlet  5. 

Books:  Asparagus,  F.  M.  Hexamer,  50  cents;  Asparagus  Culture, 
James  Barnes  and  William  Robinson,  50  cents. 

Beans  and  Peas. — Bulletins:     Cornell  Buls.  239,  260;  Louisiana 
Bui.  119;  Michigan  Bui.  259;  Farmers'  Bui.  121;  Delaware  Bui.  41. 
Books:     Bean  Culture,  Glen  C.  Sevey,  50  cents. 

Cabbage. — Books:  Cabbage,  How  to  Grow,  James  J.  H.  Gregory, 
30  cents;  Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  for  Profit,  J.  M.  Lupton,  30  cents; 
Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  Allied  Vegetables,  C.  L.  Allen. 

Celery. — Bulletins:  Farmers'  Buls.  148,  282;  Colorado  Bui.  144; 
California  Bui.  208;  Ohio  Circular  72. 

Books:  Celery  Culture,  W.  R.  Beattie,  50  cents;  Celery  Culture 
for  Profit,  T.  Greiner,  20  cents;  Culture  of  Kalamazoo  Celery,  G.  Von 
Bochove,  50  cents. 

Cucumber. — Bulletins:  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Harrisburg,  Pa.  No. 
96;  Farmers'  Buls.  231,  254. 

Books:     Cucumber  Culture  for  Amateurs,  W.  J.  May,  50  cents. 

Melons. — Bulletins:  Bui.  104,  Colorado,  Rust  Resisting  Canta- 
loupe; Bui.  108,  Colorado  Cantaloupe  Culture;  New  Mexica  Bui.  63, 
Melon  Culture;  Purdue  Bui.  135,  Vol.  14,  Gems;  Illinois  Bui.  125, 
Muskmelon  Marketing;  Illinois  Bui.  155,  Muskmelon  Fertilizers; 
Colorado  Bui.  85,  Cantaloupe  Seed. 

New  Hampshire  Bui.  86,  Watermelon;  South  Dakota  Bui.  67, 
Melons;  Georgia  Bui.  38,  Watermelons. 

Books:  Melon  Culture,  W.  W.  Tracy,  50  cents;  Melon  Culture, 
Troop,  50  cents. 

Mushrooms. — Books:  Mushrooms,  George  E.  Atkinson,  $3.25; 
The  Mushroom  Book,  Nina  Marshall,  $3.25;  Mushrooms,  How  to  Grow 
Them,  William  Falconer,  $1.00. 

Onion. — Bulletins:  Farmers'  Buls.  39,  354,  434;  New  Mexico 
Bui.  82;  Texas  Bui.  77;  Idaho  Bui.  22;  Colorado  Bui.  81;  Indiana  Cir- 
cular 15. 

Books:     New  Onion  Culture,  T.  Greiner,  50  cents. 

Potato. — Bulletin:     Minnesota  Extension  Bui.  38. 

Books:  The  Potato,  Samuel  Fraser,  75  cents;  The  Potato,  Grubb 
&  Guilford,  $2.00. 

Rhubarb.— Book:  The  New  Rhubard  Culture,  J.  E.  Morse,  50 
cents. 

Squash. — Book:  Squashes,  James  J.  Gregory,  30  cents;  Rhode 
Island  Bui.  41. 


APPENDIX  329 

Sweet  Potato. — Book:  Sweet  Potato  Culture,  James  Fitz,  50 
cents. 

Tomatoes. — Bulletins:  Farmers' Bui.  521;  Pamphlet  10,  Ottawa, 
Canada;  Florida  Buls.  91,  112;  Virginia  Bui.  192;  Mass.  Hatch  Sta. 
Bui.  105;  Ohio  Bui.  153;  Illinois  Buls.  81,  144;  Virginia  Bui.  177;  Texas 
Bui.  65. 

Books:  Tomato  Culture,  W.  W.  Tracy,  50  cents;  Tomato  Cul- 
ture for  Amateurs,  B.  C.  Ravenscroft,  50  cents;  Tomato  Culture,  Day,. 
Cummins  and  Root,  40  cents. 

General  Books.— Vegetable  Gardening,  R.  L.  Watts,  $1.75;  The 
Forcing  Book,  L.  H.  Bailey,  $1.35;  Garden  Making,  Hunn  &  Bailey, 
$1.50;  The  Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening,  Bailey,  $1.50;  Garden 
Farming,  L.  C.  Corbett,  $2.00. 

General  Bulletins. — Farmers'  Bui.  460,  Frames  as  a  Factor  in 
Truck  Farming;  Farmers'  Bui.  255,  Home  Vegetable  Garden;  Illinois 
Circular  154,  Home  Vegetable  Garden. 

Publications. — The  Market  Growers'  Journal;  The  Garden  Maga- 
zine, New  York  City;  The  Vegetable  Grower;  Seed  Catalogues. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Acid  phosphate 39 

Acre  inch  of  water 19 

Advertising 146 

Anise 313 

Arsenite  of  lead 121 

Artichoke,  Globe 303 

Jerusalem 302 

Ash,  per  cent  in  vegetables .  .  28 

Ashes,  for  fertilizer 39 

Asparagus 159 

bunching. 165 

cultivation 163 

cutting 164 

forcing 166 

manuring 164 

planting. 162 

propagation 160 

varieties 166 

yield 166 

Balm 310 

Beans 221 

bush 222 

diseases 226 

harvesting 223 

insects 139,  226 

pole 224 

preserving  in  salt 225 

transplanting 225 

varieties 223 

Beet 189 

diseases 192 

exhibiting 318 

forcing 191 

harvesting 191 

keeping 191 

stock 192 

Swiss  chard 193 

varieties 191 

sugar 193 

Books  and  bulletins 328 

Borage 314 

Bordeaux  mixture 270 

Borecole.  .  .212 


PAGE 

Botanical  classification 148 

Brussels  sprouts 210 

Buckwheat  Family 185 

Cabbage 196 

early 198 

late 201 

diseases 208 

exhibiting 318 

harvesting 200,  203 

hill  sowing 202 

insects 126,  128,  136 

retarding  heading  of 200 

sauerkraut 207 

seed  raising 205 

seed  sowing 201 

setting  plants 199 

soil 198,  201 

storing 203 

transplanting 202 

varieties 206 

Cabbage  Family 196 

Calendar,  monthly 323 

Caraway 313 

Carbon  bisulphide 123 

Carrot 234 

cultivation 235 

exhibiting  carrots 318 

gathering 236 

seed 237 

storing 236 

varieties 238 

Catnip 310 

Cauliflower 210 

Celeriac 251 

Celery 239 

blanching,  time  required .  .  249 

blanching  with  boards ....  245 

blanching  with  earth 245 

digging , 247 

diseases 249 

early 239 

handling 244 

insects..                                .  138 


INDEX 


331 


PAGE 
Celery  (continued) 

late 240 

marketing 251 

onions  with 244 

planting 242,  246 

seed 249 

storing 247 

varieties 250 

Chinch  bug 138 

Chives 184 

Citron  melon 290 

Classification  of  vegetables.  .  147 

Clover  Family 220 

Cold-climate  vegetables 147 

Cold  frames  (see  greenhouses)  92 

for  early  spring  use 95 

sash  for 109 

Commercial  fertilizers 30,  36 

Compost  heap 35 

Cooperative  associations.  .  .  .  146 

Coriander 313 

Corn 153 

classes  of 153 

cultivation 154 

curing  seed ., 157 

cutting  off  tassels 158 

insects 130,  137, 138,  158  . 

marketing 156 

pop 157 

smut 158 

varieties 156,  157 

Crows,  protection  from 70 

Cress 218 

water.  .  .  .  . 217 

Cross-pollination 88 

Cucumber 290 

cultivation 291 

gathering  the  crop 292 

insects 131,  294 

salting 292 

seed.  .  . 294 

starting  in  cold  frames.  .  .  .  291 

varieties 294 

yields 294 

Cultivation,  general 17,  49 

Cut-worm 130 

Dandelion 301 

Development  of  varieties. ...  84 


PAGE 

Dill 313 

Diseases — 

anthracnose  of  bean 226 

beet  scab 192 

blight  or  rust  of  celery ....  250 

clubroot  of  cabbage 208 

leaf  blight  of  celery 249 

lettuce  mildew 299 

potato  blight 270 

potato  scab 267 

smut  of  corn 158 

tomato  rot .  .  .  .  ? 276 

Eggplant 271 

Endive 300 

Exhibiting  vegetables 315 

Fennel 310 

Formalin  for  potato  scab. ...  269 

Frost-hardy  vegetables. .....  148 

Frost-tender  vegetables 148 

Fungi 149 

Gardening,  divisions  of 11 

home  garden 12 

in  general 14 

Garden  herbs 309 

Garlic,  common 182 

Germinating  apparatus 81 

Germination,    conditions    for 

good 63 

Glass  structures 92 

Gophers,  protection  from 70 

Gourd 280 

Gourd  Family 279 

Goosefoot  Family 189 

Grass  Family 153 

Greenhouse  hotbed 100 

Greenhouses 103 

advantages 103 

boxes 114 

glass 116 

glazing 117 

heating 108 

lean-to 107 

materials  for 104 

mats 110 

miscellaneous  notes  on.  ...  115 

sash 109 

shading 115 

shutters.  .  .110 


332 


INDEX 


PAGE 
Greenhouses  (continued) 

soil 113 

substitutes  for  glass 114 

temperature Ill 

types 103 

ventilation Ill 

watering 112 

Green  manures 35 

Ground  bone 37 

Ground  cherry 277 

Hamper 145 

Hardening-off  of  plants 75 

Hellebore 121 

Herbs 309 

Heredity  in  plants 84 

Home  garden 12 

Home  mixing  of  fertilizers. .  .     40 

Horseradish 216 

Hotbeds  (see  also  greenhouses)  99 

early  spring  use 95 

fire  hotbeds 98 

greenhouse  hotbeds 100 

manure  for 96 

sash  for 109 

shutters  for 110 

mats  for 110 

Humus 26 

Implements 13,  57 

combined  drills  and  culti- 
vators  58,  66 

dibbles 59 

hand  implements 50,  58 

horse    hoes    and    cultiva- 
tors  55,  56,  57 

marker 59 

plank  drag 61 

potato  diggers 61 

scuffle  hoe 60 

seed  drills 58 

spray  pumps 61 

Insecticides 120 

application  of 124 

arsenate  of  lead 121 

carbon  bisulphide 123 

hellebore 121 

kerosene  emulsion 122 

Paris  green 120 

pyrethrum 120 


PAGE 
Insecticides  (continued) 

"sticker" 122 

tobacco 120 

Insects 119 

aphis 137 

bean  weevil 139 

cabbage  flea  beetle 136 

cabbage  lice 137 

cabbage  plusia 128 

cabbage  worms 126 

catching  at  night 123 

celery  caterpillar 138 

chinch  bug 138 

corn  moth 137 

classes  of. 119 

cucumber  beetle. 131 

cut-worms 130 

leaf  lice 137 

maggots 134 

May  beetle 133 

natural  enemies 119 

parsley  worm 138 

potato  beetle .  125 

pea  weevil 139 

squash  bug 141 

squash  vine  borer 140 

tassel  worm 137 

white  grub 133 

wire  worms. 129 

Irrigation 18 

acre  inch  of  water 19 

amount  of  water  needed...  18 

application  of  water 20 

cultivation  as  an  aid  to.  .  .  17 

pumping  water  for 19 

reservoirs 19 

Skinner  system 22 

subirrigation 21 

temperature  of  water 21 

Jerusalem  artichoke 302 

Judging  vegetables 316 

Kainit 39 

Kale 212 

Kerosene  emulsion 122 

Kitchen  garden 12 

Kohl-rabi 212 

Laboratory  exercises 327 

Land  plaster   40 


INDEX 


333 


PAGE 

Lavender 311 

Leaf  lice 137 

Leeks 183 

Lettuce 295 

cultivation 296 

mildew 299 

varieties 297 

Lily  Family 159 

Lima  beans 223 

Lime 40 

Mangel-wurzel 192 

Manure  pile 34 

Manure  hotbed   96 

Manures 26 

acid  phosphate 39 

action  of  in  soil 27 

animal 31 

application  of 45,  46 

classes 26 

commercial 30,  36 

composition  of 26,  29 

compost  heap .     35 

cow 33 

effects  of  on  crops 43 

for  early  and  late  crops ...      44 

for  leguminous  crops 45 

green  manures 35 

ground  blood 37 

ground  bones 37 

heating  of 32 

hen 33 

horse 32 

kainit 39 

land  plaster 40 

lime 40 

liquid 47 

mixing 33,  40 

nitrate  of  soda 37 

raw  rock  phosphate 39 

rotating  manures 46 

salt 27,  39 

sheep 33 

sulphate  of  ammonia 39 

swine 33 

tankage 36 

use  of  fresh 44 

wood  ashes 39 

Manuring  growing  crops.  ...     46 


Marketing 

Martynia 

May  beetle 

Melon,  musk .... 
Melon,  preserving 


PAGE 

143 

279 

133 

286 

290 

Melon,  water 288 

Mint 312 

Mint  Family 309 

Mixing  varieties 89 

Morning  Glory  Family 252 

Monthly  calendar 323 

Mulching. 17 

Mushrooms 150 

native  species  of 151 

Muskmelon ' .  .  .    286 

culture 286 

varieties 288 

Nitrate  of  soda 37 

Novelties  in  seeds .      84 

Okra 230 

Onions 167 

cultivation 171 

exhibiting  onions 318 

harvesting 172 

marketing 179 

perennial 181 

potato  onions 181 

scallions  .  .  . 173 

seed 181 

sets' 174 

soil 168 

sowing  seed 169 

storing 173 

top  onions 181 

transplanting 177 

varieties 180 

yield 179 

Oyster  plant 299 

Packages 144 

Paris  green 120 

Parsnip  Family 231,  312 

Parsley 233 

Parsnip 231 

culture 231 

varieties 233 

Peas 226 

culture 227 

canning  of 228 


334 


INDEX 


PAGE 
Peas  (continued) 

varieties 229 

Pedigrees  in  seeds 80 

Pepper  grass 218 

Peppers.. 278 

Peppermint 311 

Pie  plant 185 

Plant  breeding 84 

Plant  food,  developed  by  cul- 
tivation      56 

Plowing 52 

subsoil  plowing 53 

Pollenizing  flowers 88 

Pop  corn 157 

Potato  beetle 125 

Potato.  Family 253 

Potatoes 254 

blight 270 

digging 261 

diseases 267 

early  planting 258 

insects 125 

main  crop .  . .  . 259 

manuring 256 

origin 254 

pitting..  . 261 

propagation,  notes  on 265 

rotation 256 

"running  out"  of 257 

saving  seed 257 

scab 267 

score  card 317 

sets  or  "seeds" 257 

soil 256 

starch 263 

sweet 252 

varieties 264 

Protection  to  newly  planted 

seeds  against  insects.  ...     70 

crows  and  gophers ....      70 

Pumpkins 285 

exhibiting 318 

Pyrethrum 120 

Radishes 218 

culture 218 

varieties 220 

Rhubarb 185 

culture..  ...   185 


PAGE 
Rhubarb  (continued) 

forcing 187 

varieties 188 

Ridging  land 54 

Rotation  of  manures 46 

Rotation  of  crops 24 

Rue * 314 

Rutabaga 215 

Sage 311 

Salsify 299 

Sauerkraut 207 

Savory 312 

Seed  and  seed  growing 80 

changing  seed 83 

curing 82 

germinating  apparatus.  ...      81 
germinating  standards.  .  .  .    322 

pedigrees 80 

selling 144 

stock 83 

storing 82 

testing 80 

Seed  sowing 63 

by  hand 67 

depth 63 

firming  with  feet 68 

in  stiff  soils 65 

time 64 

with  machine 66 

Seedsmen's  humbugs 84 

Seedsmen's  specialties 83 

Seed  tables 319 

amount  for  acre 321 

longevity 320 

purity  standards 322 

number  of  seeds  in  an  ounce  319 

time  to  germinate 321 

weight  of  seeds 319 

Seeds,  pedigrees  of 80 

novelties 84 

Selling 144 

Shading,  seed  bed 68 

greenhouse  glass 115 

Shallots 181 

Skinner  system  of  irrigation  .     22 

Smut 158 

Soils 14 

for  early  crops 16 


INDEX 


335 


PAGE 
Soils  (continued) 

for  late  crops 16 

elements  lacking  in 26 

elements  necessary 26 

greenhouse  soil 113 

Spearmint 312 

Spinach 38,  194 

Squash 280 

cultivation 281 

exhibiting 318 

harvesting 282 

insects. 140 

pollenizing  flowers 280 

storing 283 

varieties 283 

"Sticker" 122 

Strawberry  tomato 277 

Subirrigation 21 

Subsoiling 53 

Summer  savory 312 

Sunflower  Family 295 

Sweet  basil .•.  .   312 

Sweet  corn 153 

Sweet  marjoram 312 

Sweet  potato 252 

Swiss  chard 193 

Tankage 37 

Testing  seed 80 

Thinning  plants 69 

Thyme 312 

Tillage,  garden 49 

general 54 

objects  of 49 

to  develop  plant  food 56 

Tobacco 120 

Tomato 272 

cultivation 273 

diseases 276 

insects 276 

in  severe  locations 274 

land  for 273 

marketing 276 

prolonging  season  of 275 


PAGE 

Tomato  (continued, 

pruning  and  training 273 

saving  seed 275 

transplanting 273 

varieties 275 

Tools 13 

Transplanting 70 

conditions  of  success 72 

digging  plants  for 73 

firming  the  soil  in v .  74 

machine  transplanting.  ...  77 

prolonging  season  of 275 

reasons  for 71 

shortening  the  tops  in 73 

-with  tomato  cans 76 

Trucking 11 

Turnip 213 

culture 214 

rutabaga 213 

Varieties,  development  of....  84 

distance  between 90 

mixing  of 89 

Vegetables,  composition  of. . .  28 

classification 147 

family 148 

Vegetable  forcing 12 

Vegetables  for  exhibition.  .  .  .  315 

Vegetable  oyster 299 

Vitality  of  seeds 320 

Warm-climate  vegetables. . . .  147 

Watercress 217 

Water  for  plants 18 

Watermelon 288 

culture 289 

harvesting 290 

varieties 290 

Weeds 49 

killing  of 49 

prevention  of 49,  51 

seeds  in  manure 51 

Weights  of  seeds 319 

Winter  savory 312 

Wire  worms.  .  .129 


STANDARD  AGRICULTURAL  TEXTBOOKS 
FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


FIELD  CROPS,  by  A.  D.  WILSON  and  C.  W.  WARBURTON.  An 
Agronomy  textbook  that  covers  in  a  very  acceptable  manner  for  schools 
the  varieties,  production,  improvement,  etc.,  of  all  American  farm  crops. 
544  pp.,  160  ills.  Cloth.  Price  $1.50,  postage  15  cents. 

BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  by  C.  S.  PLUMB.  A 
book  that  treats  in  a  masterful  way  the  fundamentals  of  livestock  husban- 
dry. Covers  types  and  breeds,  judging,  care,  breeding,  feeding,  etc.,  of 
farm  animals,  including  poultry.  393  pp.,  216  ills.  Cloth.  Price 
$1.25,  postage  12  cents. 

SOILS  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY,  by  A.  R.  WHITSON  and  H.  L. 
WALSTER.  A  nontechnical  text  for  secondary  schools,  presenting  the 
foundation  principles  of  soils,  their  nature,  fertility,  and  management. 
Laboratory  experiments.  315  pp.,  illustrated.  Price  $1.25,  postage  12 
cents. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING,  by  J.  B.  DAVIDSON.  The  only 

book  published  that  covers  in  a  general  way  for  the  use  of  schools  the  sub- 
ject of  farm  mechanics.  Machinery  and  motors  and  farm  buildings  are 
emphasized.  554  pp.,  342  ills.  Price  $1.50,  postage  15  cents. 

POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING,  by  S.  B.  GREEN.  A  splendid 
presentation  of  the  principles  of  orchard  management,  small  fruit  culture, 
methods  of  propagation,  marketing  fruits,  etc.  A  popular  text  for 
schools  and  for  the  practical  horticulturist.  300  pp.,  illustrated.  Price 
$1.00,  postpaid. 

FARM  RECORDS  AND  ACCOUNTS,  by  ANDREW  Boss  and  F.W. 
PECK.  This  book  affords  a  simple  but  complete  one-book  system  of  keep- 
ing farm  accounts  that  is  the  result  of  years  of  study  in  the  effort  to  de- 
vise a  plan  least  burdensome  to  execute.  Space  for  two  years'  records. 
Price  $2.00,  postage  19  cents. 


WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

Agricultural  and  Industrial  Book  Publishers 

Saint  Paul,  Minnesota. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $I.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


NuV 


1937 


JUN   5  1941 


MOV  19 1996 


LD  21-95m-7,'37 


99 

I 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


